# AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5\-Unit Course Review ![Abstract human profile with five luminous symbols representing perception, memory, learning, social behavior, and research\.]() Review all five AP® Psychology units with 705 independently written cards covering concepts, scenarios, research methods, data interpretation, and evidence\-based reasoning\. 作成者 [Open Study Contributor]() [このデッキを無料で学習]() Nibomo が開き、すぐに学習を始められます。 ## デッキの詳細 - カード: 705枚のカード - バージョン: 3 - 公開日: 2026年8月25日 - 最終更新: 2026年9月10日 - ライセンス: Common knowledge · CC0 1\.0 - 対象ユーザーの言語: [en]() - 科目: Psychology - レベル: AP Psychology - タグ: psychology\-course\-review, psychology\-course\-review\-u1, psychology\-course\-review\-u2, psychology\-course\-review\-u3, psychology\-course\-review\-u4, psychology\-course\-review\-u5 ## このデッキについて Review all five units in the AP® Psychology course framework with 705 independently written English flashcards. The deck covers Biological Bases of Behavior, Cognition, Development and Learning, Social Psychology and Personality, and Mental and Physical Health. It supports all four science practices: Concept Application, Research Methods and Design, Data Interpretation, and Argumentation. ### What the cards ask you to retrieve * **Concept → meaning or function:** recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction. * **Scenario → concept:** identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result. * **Study description → method:** identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion. * **Data representation → interpretation:** read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows. * **Claim + evidence → reasoning:** connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation. The order follows Units 1–5, keeps related material within the current or next topic, and introduces prerequisites and chronological steps first. Definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are separated by at least three unrelated cards. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences remain adjacent only when that progression helps learning. ### What's deliberately left out The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or use long essay prompts. It also leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations. Check the [official AP Psychology course page](https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/courses/ap-psychology) for authoritative requirements. Psychological facts and the course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, ordering, and inherited generated cover, to the extent those rights exist. This is an independent, unofficial study aid. It isn't affiliated with, endorsed by, sponsored by, or official material from College Board or the AP Program. AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this product. No College Board examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or trade dress were copied or adapted. ## 類似のデッキ - [AP Statistics Flashcards: Complete 5\-Unit Course Review]() - [AP Biology Flashcards: Complete 8\-Unit Course Review]() - [AP Physics 1 Flashcards: Complete 8\-Unit Course Review]() - [AP Chemistry Flashcards: Complete 9\-Unit Course Review]() - [AP Calculus AB Flashcards: 8\-Unit Formulas, Theorems & Concepts]() - [Unit Circle Flashcards: 16 Angles, Radians & Exact Coordinates]() ## このデッキのカード ### カード 1 **質問** Nature in the nature–nurture question? **回答** Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes. ### カード 2 **質問** Central nervous system? **回答** The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses. ### カード 3 **質問** Main role of the spinal cord? **回答** It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes. ### カード 4 **質問** Scores are `4, 6, 8, 10`. What is the mean? **回答** 7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores. ### カード 5 **質問** Nurture in the nature–nurture question? **回答** Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience. ### カード 6 **質問** Peripheral nervous system? **回答** The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body. ### カード 7 **質問** Reflex arc? **回答** A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing. ### カード 8 **質問** Reflex times are `180, 190, 210, 260, 410` milliseconds. What is the median? **回答** 210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values. ### カード 9 **質問** Heritability? **回答** The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait. ### カード 10 **質問** Autonomic nervous system? **回答** The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs. ### カード 11 **質問** Evolutionary perspective on behavior? **回答** It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction. ### カード 12 **質問** Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid? **回答** It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits. ### カード 13 **質問** Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone? **回答** They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience. ### カード 14 **質問** Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this? **回答** A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions. ### カード 15 **質問** Natural selection? **回答** Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations. ### カード 16 **質問** Somatic nervous system? **回答** The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement. ### カード 17 **質問** Sensory neurons? **回答** They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system. ### カード 18 **質問** Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives? **回答** An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities. ### カード 19 **質問** Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation? **回答** Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables. ### カード 20 **質問** Sympathetic nervous system? **回答** The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat. ### カード 21 **質問** Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim? **回答** The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect. ### カード 22 **質問** Motor neurons? **回答** They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands. ### カード 23 **質問** Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion? **回答** The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate. ### カード 24 **質問** Parasympathetic nervous system? **回答** The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery. ### カード 25 **質問** Resting potential? **回答** The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane. ### カード 26 **質問** Interneurons? **回答** Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons. ### カード 27 **質問** Adrenaline's behavioral role? **回答** It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response. ### カード 28 **質問** Frontal lobes? **回答** Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech. ### カード 29 **質問** Neural threshold? **回答** The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential. ### カード 30 **質問** Corpus callosum? **回答** The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres. ### カード 31 **質問** Leptin's role in eating? **回答** It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger. ### カード 32 **質問** Temporal lobes? **回答** Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition. ### カード 33 **質問** Depolarization during an action potential? **回答** Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive. ### カード 34 **質問** Dopamine's major psychological functions? **回答** Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement. ### カード 35 **質問** Ghrelin's role in eating? **回答** It helps stimulate hunger. ### カード 36 **質問** Drug agonist? **回答** A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action. ### カード 37 **質問** Action potential? **回答** A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached. ### カード 38 **質問** Reuptake? **回答** The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release. ### カード 39 **質問** Serotonin's major psychological functions? **回答** Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation. ### カード 40 **質問** Glutamate's major psychological functions? **回答** It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory. ### カード 41 **質問** Refractory period? **回答** A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential. ### カード 42 **質問** Melatonin's role? **回答** It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness. ### カード 43 **質問** Drug antagonist? **回答** A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor. ### カード 44 **質問** Stimulants? **回答** Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness. ### カード 45 **質問** Drug tolerance? **回答** A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect. ### カード 46 **質問** Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem? **回答** Multiple sclerosis. ### カード 47 **質問** All-or-none principle? **回答** A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size. ### カード 48 **質問** Norepinephrine's major psychological functions? **回答** Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response. ### カード 49 **質問** GABA's major psychological function? **回答** It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity. ### カード 50 **質問** Oxytocin's behavioral role? **回答** It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation. ### カード 51 **質問** Reuptake inhibitor? **回答** A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption. ### カード 52 **質問** Depressants? **回答** Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity. ### カード 53 **質問** Drug withdrawal? **回答** Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped. ### カード 54 **質問** Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem? **回答** Myasthenia gravis. ### カード 55 **質問** Glial cells? **回答** Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections. ### カード 56 **質問** Endorphins? **回答** Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure. ### カード 57 **質問** Substance P? **回答** A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling. ### カード 58 **質問** Acetylcholine's major functions? **回答** Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention. ### カード 59 **質問** Opioids? **回答** Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria. ### カード 60 **質問** Hallucinogens? **回答** Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input. ### カード 61 **質問** Addiction? **回答** Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control. ### カード 62 **質問** Parietal lobes? **回答** Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information. ### カード 63 **質問** Consciousness? **回答** Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment. ### カード 64 **質問** Circadian rhythm? **回答** A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness. ### カード 65 **質問** Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region? **回答** Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe. ### カード 66 **質問** Occipital lobes? **回答** Primary cortical processing of visual information. ### カード 67 **質問** What does split-brain research reveal? **回答** When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently. ### カード 68 **質問** How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm? **回答** It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock. ### カード 69 **質問** NREM-1 sleep? **回答** The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations. ### カード 70 **質問** Motor cortex? **回答** A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement. ### カード 71 **質問** Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region? **回答** Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe. ### カード 72 **質問** Brainstem's core function? **回答** It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord. ### カード 73 **質問** NREM-2 sleep? **回答** A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes. ### カード 74 **質問** Somatosensory cortex? **回答** A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information. ### カード 75 **質問** Medulla's main functions? **回答** It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate. ### カード 76 **質問** Reticular activating system? **回答** A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle. ### カード 77 **質問** NREM-3 sleep? **回答** Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening. ### カード 78 **質問** Cerebellum's main functions? **回答** Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing. ### カード 79 **質問** Thalamus? **回答** A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness. ### カード 80 **質問** Hypothalamus? **回答** It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity. ### カード 81 **質問** REM sleep? **回答** A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis. ### カード 82 **質問** Why is the pituitary called a master gland? **回答** Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control. ### カード 83 **質問** Amygdala? **回答** A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning. ### カード 84 **質問** Hippocampus? **回答** A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory. ### カード 85 **質問** How does sleep change across a typical night? **回答** NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning. ### カード 86 **質問** Contralateral brain control? **回答** Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body. ### カード 87 **質問** What does an EEG measure? **回答** Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision. ### カード 88 **質問** Reward-center activity? **回答** Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes. ### カード 89 **質問** Neuroplasticity? **回答** The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury. ### カード 90 **質問** Which method shows brain activity changing during a task? **回答** A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone. ### カード 91 **質問** A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion? **回答** The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network. ### カード 92 **質問** Insomnia? **回答** Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep. ### カード 93 **質問** How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound? **回答** Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness. ### カード 94 **質問** Absolute threshold? **回答** The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time. ### カード 95 **質問** Activation-synthesis view of dreams? **回答** The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep. ### カード 96 **質問** Narcolepsy? **回答** A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep. ### カード 97 **質問** Why can jet lag disrupt sleep? **回答** The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule. ### カード 98 **質問** Difference threshold? **回答** The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time. ### カード 99 **質問** Consolidation view of dreams? **回答** Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories. ### カード 100 **質問** REM sleep behavior disorder? **回答** Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams. ### カード 101 **質問** Why can rotating shift work impair sleep? **回答** Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting. ### カード 102 **質問** Weber's law? **回答** The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity. ### カード 103 **質問** Two supported functions of sleep? **回答** Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity. ### カード 104 **質問** Sleep apnea? **回答** Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen. ### カード 105 **質問** REM rebound? **回答** A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation. ### カード 106 **質問** Signal detection theory? **回答** Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness. ### カード 107 **質問** Sensory transduction? **回答** Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals. ### カード 108 **質問** Vestibular sense? **回答** The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear. ### カード 109 **質問** Somnambulism? **回答** Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep. ### カード 110 **質問** Why is there a blind spot in each eye? **回答** The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones. ### カード 111 **質問** What begins visual transduction? **回答** Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain. ### カード 112 **質問** A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate? **回答** From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears. ### カード 113 **質問** Why are taste and smell called chemical senses? **回答** Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air. ### カード 114 **質問** Accommodation in vision? **回答** The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina. ### カード 115 **質問** Cones? **回答** Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light. ### カード 116 **質問** What begins auditory transduction? **回答** Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals. ### カード 117 **質問** How does trichromatic processing explain color vision? **回答** Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience. ### カード 118 **質問** How is smell unusual among the senses? **回答** Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses. ### カード 119 **質問** Kinesthesia? **回答** The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints. ### カード 120 **質問** Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing? **回答** Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate. ### カード 121 **質問** Nearsightedness? **回答** Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred. ### カード 122 **質問** Pheromones? **回答** Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species. ### カード 123 **質問** Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result? **回答** A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals. ### カード 124 **質問** Volley theory of pitch? **回答** Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone. ### カード 125 **質問** Farsightedness? **回答** Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred. ### カード 126 **質問** Six taste qualities named in the course? **回答** Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste). ### カード 127 **質問** Phantom-limb sensation? **回答** Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it. ### カード 128 **質問** Sensory interaction? **回答** One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor. ### カード 129 **質問** What causes most color-vision deficiency? **回答** One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors. ### カード 130 **質問** Prosopagnosia? **回答** Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision. ### カード 131 **質問** Rods? **回答** Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail. ### カード 132 **質問** How does opponent processing explain afterimages? **回答** Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate. ### カード 133 **質問** Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss? **回答** Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways. ### カード 134 **質問** Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters? **回答** Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness. ### カード 135 **質問** What do the semicircular canals detect? **回答** Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance. ### カード 136 **質問** Synesthesia? **回答** Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience. ### カード 137 **質問** Dichromatism versus monochromatism? **回答** Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination. ### カード 138 **質問** Blindsight? **回答** Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex. ### カード 139 **質問** Sensory adaptation? **回答** Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation. ### カード 140 **質問** Gate-control view of pain? **回答** Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience. ### カード 141 **質問** Bottom-up processing? **回答** Building a perception from incoming sensory details. ### カード 142 **質問** Concept? **回答** A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people. ### カード 143 **質問** Fixation in problem solving? **回答** Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem. ### カード 144 **質問** Algorithm? **回答** A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow. ### カード 145 **質問** Top-down processing? **回答** Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input. ### カード 146 **質問** Confirmation bias? **回答** Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief. ### カード 147 **質問** Retinal disparity? **回答** The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object. ### カード 148 **質問** Heuristic? **回答** A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors. ### カード 149 **質問** Selective attention? **回答** Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input. ### カード 150 **質問** Figure–ground organization? **回答** Separating the object of attention from its background. ### カード 151 **質問** Convergence as a depth cue? **回答** The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer. ### カード 152 **質問** Representativeness heuristic? **回答** Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information. ### カード 153 **質問** Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere? **回答** Inattentional blindness. ### カード 154 **質問** Gestalt proximity principle? **回答** Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group. ### カード 155 **質問** Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away? **回答** The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size. ### カード 156 **質問** Cocktail-party effect? **回答** The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background. ### カード 157 **質問** Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene? **回答** Change blindness. ### カード 158 **質問** Gestalt similarity principle? **回答** Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together. ### カード 159 **質問** Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue? **回答** Linear perspective. ### カード 160 **質問** Perceptual constancy? **回答** Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images. ### カード 161 **質問** Perceptual set? **回答** A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context. ### カード 162 **質問** Gestalt closure principle? **回答** The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object. ### カード 163 **質問** One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer? **回答** The blocking object, using interposition. ### カード 164 **質問** Apparent motion? **回答** The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights. ### カード 165 **質問** Availability heuristic? **回答** Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind. ### カード 166 **質問** Divergent thinking? **回答** Generating many varied, original possibilities. ### カード 167 **質問** A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue? **回答** Relative clarity. ### カード 168 **質問** Prototype? **回答** A mental image of the most typical example of a category. ### カード 169 **質問** Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description? **回答** Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic. ### カード 170 **質問** Convergent thinking? **回答** Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer. ### カード 171 **質問** A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue? **回答** Texture gradient. ### カード 172 **質問** Belief perseverance? **回答** Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited. ### カード 173 **質問** Explicit memory? **回答** Conscious memory for facts and experiences. ### カード 174 **質問** Three stores in the multi-store model? **回答** Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. ### カード 175 **質問** Seeing an object only in its usual role? **回答** Functional fixedness. ### カード 176 **質問** Mental set? **回答** Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better. ### カード 177 **質問** Episodic memory? **回答** Explicit memory for personally experienced events. ### カード 178 **質問** Working memory? **回答** A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information. ### カード 179 **質問** Insight? **回答** A sudden realization of a problem's solution. ### カード 180 **質問** Framing effect? **回答** Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently. ### カード 181 **質問** Implicit memory? **回答** Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall. ### カード 182 **質問** Overconfidence bias? **回答** Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants. ### カード 183 **質問** Anchoring bias? **回答** Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered. ### カード 184 **質問** Schema in thinking? **回答** A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation. ### カード 185 **質問** Procedural memory? **回答** Implicit memory for skills and habits. ### カード 186 **質問** Gambler's fallacy? **回答** The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent. ### カード 187 **質問** Sunk-cost fallacy? **回答** Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits. ### カード 188 **質問** Executive functions? **回答** Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control. ### カード 189 **質問** How can priming affect judgment? **回答** Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response. ### カード 190 **質問** Central executive in working memory? **回答** The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing. ### カード 191 **質問** Serial-position effect? **回答** People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle. ### カード 192 **質問** Semantic memory? **回答** Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge. ### カード 193 **質問** Levels-of-processing principle? **回答** Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing. ### カード 194 **質問** Automatic processing? **回答** Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings. ### カード 195 **質問** Maintenance rehearsal? **回答** Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning. ### カード 196 **質問** Prospective memory? **回答** Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future. ### カード 197 **質問** Primacy effect? **回答** Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal. ### カード 198 **質問** Long-term memory? **回答** A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills. ### カード 199 **質問** Highly superior autobiographical memory? **回答** An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy. ### カード 200 **質問** Effortful processing? **回答** Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work. ### カード 201 **質問** Elaborative rehearsal? **回答** Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge. ### カード 202 **質問** Memory consolidation? **回答** The process that stabilizes a memory after learning. ### カード 203 **質問** Recency effect? **回答** Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active. ### カード 204 **質問** Spacing effect? **回答** Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session. ### カード 205 **質問** Testing effect? **回答** Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone. ### カード 206 **質問** Chunking? **回答** Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units. ### カード 207 **質問** Mnemonic? **回答** A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern. ### カード 208 **質問** Why organize material into a hierarchy? **回答** Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve. ### カード 209 **質問** How can a schema help encoding? **回答** It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information. ### カード 210 **質問** Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables? **回答** The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent. ### カード 211 **質問** Iconic memory? **回答** A very brief visual sensory memory. ### カード 212 **質問** Recall? **回答** Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question. ### カード 213 **質問** Retrieval cue? **回答** A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness. ### カード 214 **質問** Encoding-specificity principle? **回答** Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding. ### カード 215 **質問** Context-dependent memory? **回答** Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred. ### カード 216 **質問** Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory? **回答** No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks. ### カード 217 **質問** Echoic memory? **回答** A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory. ### カード 218 **質問** Anterograde amnesia? **回答** Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness. ### カード 219 **質問** Phonological loop? **回答** The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information. ### カード 220 **質問** Cerebellum's memory role? **回答** It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses. ### カード 221 **質問** Why is short-term memory described as limited? **回答** It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking. ### カード 222 **質問** Retrograde amnesia? **回答** Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness. ### カード 223 **質問** Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember? **回答** The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable. ### カード 224 **質問** How can the amygdala affect memory? **回答** Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events. ### カード 225 **質問** Visuospatial sketchpad? **回答** The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information. ### カード 226 **質問** Long-term potentiation? **回答** A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory. ### カード 227 **質問** Infantile amnesia? **回答** The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life. ### カード 228 **質問** Alzheimer's disease? **回答** A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning. ### カード 229 **質問** Scores are `2, 4, 4, 7, 9`. What are the mode and range? **回答** The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because `9 - 2 = 7`. ### カード 230 **質問** Recognition? **回答** Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer. ### カード 231 **質問** Why is memory called reconstructive? **回答** Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information. ### カード 232 **質問** Storage decay? **回答** A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used. ### カード 233 **質問** State-dependent memory? **回答** Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning. ### カード 234 **質問** Relearning? **回答** Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again. ### カード 235 **質問** Misinformation effect? **回答** Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event. ### カード 236 **質問** A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported? **回答** Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage. ### カード 237 **質問** Mood-congruent memory? **回答** A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve. ### カード 238 **質問** Priming? **回答** Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus. ### カード 239 **質問** Tip-of-the-tongue state? **回答** A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known. ### カード 240 **質問** Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory? **回答** Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study. ### カード 241 **質問** Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation? **回答** Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean. ### カード 242 **質問** Metacognition? **回答** Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning. ### カード 243 **質問** Source amnesia? **回答** Remembering information but misremembering where it came from. ### カード 244 **質問** Test standardization? **回答** Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample. ### カード 245 **質問** Reliability? **回答** The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers. ### カード 246 **質問** Stereotype threat? **回答** Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance. ### カード 247 **質問** General intelligence, or g? **回答** A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks. ### カード 248 **質問** Encoding failure? **回答** Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak. ### カード 249 **質問** Validity? **回答** The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score. ### カード 250 **質問** Proactive interference? **回答** Older learning disrupts recall of newer information. ### カード 251 **質問** Imagination inflation? **回答** Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened. ### カード 252 **質問** A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show? **回答** Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time. ### カード 253 **質問** Retrieval failure? **回答** Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing. ### カード 254 **質問** Retroactive interference? **回答** Newer learning disrupts recall of older information. ### カード 255 **質問** A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion? **回答** Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory. ### カード 256 **質問** Repression in psychodynamic theory? **回答** The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness. ### カード 257 **質問** Flashbulb memory? **回答** A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change. ### カード 258 **質問** A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this? **回答** An operational definition of memory accuracy. ### カード 259 **質問** A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean? **回答** It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group. ### カード 260 **質問** Stereotype lift? **回答** A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged. ### カード 261 **質問** Achievement test? **回答** An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned. ### カード 262 **質問** Construct validity? **回答** How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure. ### カード 263 **質問** Test–retest reliability? **回答** Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times. ### カード 264 **質問** Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy? **回答** Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation. ### カード 265 **質問** Multiple-abilities view of intelligence? **回答** Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone. ### カード 266 **質問** Aptitude test? **回答** An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future. ### カード 267 **質問** Traditional IQ formula? **回答** Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead. ### カード 268 **質問** Predictive validity? **回答** How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome. ### カード 269 **質問** What does a normal score distribution look like? **回答** Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme. ### カード 270 **質問** Split-half reliability? **回答** Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment. ### カード 271 **質問** Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified? **回答** That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter. ### カード 272 **質問** Flynn effect? **回答** Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence. ### カード 273 **質問** A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show? **回答** A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable. ### カード 274 **質問** Continuous versus stage development? **回答** Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts. ### カード 275 **質問** How can prenatal environment affect later development? **回答** Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth. ### カード 276 **質問** Teratogen? **回答** An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility. ### カード 277 **質問** Maturation? **回答** Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence. ### カード 278 **質問** Stability–change question in development? **回答** It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience. ### カード 279 **質問** A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable? **回答** The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur. ### カード 280 **質問** Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores? **回答** An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion. ### カード 281 **質問** Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing? **回答** Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace. ### カード 282 **質問** Fine versus gross motor skills? **回答** Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement. ### カード 283 **質問** Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers? **回答** Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development. ### カード 284 **質問** What did the visual-cliff procedure test? **回答** It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience. ### カード 285 **質問** Puberty? **回答** The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes. ### カード 286 **質問** Sensitive period? **回答** A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later. ### カード 287 **質問** What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence? **回答** A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight. ### カード 288 **質問** Primary versus secondary sex characteristics? **回答** Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction. ### カード 289 **質問** Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules? **回答** A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated. ### カード 290 **質問** Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim? **回答** The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions. ### カード 291 **質問** Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track? **回答** A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain. ### カード 292 **質問** Menarche? **回答** The first menstrual period. ### カード 293 **質問** Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition? **回答** A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population. ### カード 294 **質問** About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean? **回答** About 68%. ### カード 295 **質問** A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim? **回答** Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association. ### カード 296 **質問** Spermarche? **回答** The first ejaculation. ### カード 297 **質問** Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect? **回答** A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies. ### カード 298 **質問** Imprinting? **回答** A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period. ### カード 299 **質問** Why can adolescent risk-taking increase? **回答** Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition. ### カード 300 **質問** Menopause? **回答** The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation. ### カード 301 **質問** Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it? **回答** Naturalistic observation. ### カード 302 **質問** How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood? **回答** They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace. ### カード 303 **質問** Gender identity? **回答** A person's internal sense of their gender. ### カード 304 **質問** Gender role? **回答** A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender. ### カード 305 **質問** Sex versus gender? **回答** Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings. ### カード 306 **質問** Common sensory change in later adulthood? **回答** Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely. ### カード 307 **質問** Sexual orientation? **回答** A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity. ### カード 308 **質問** Gender schema? **回答** A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender. ### カード 309 **質問** Best broad view of gender development? **回答** Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact. ### カード 310 **質問** Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline? **回答** No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow. ### カード 311 **質問** Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder? **回答** Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity. ### カード 312 **質問** Schema in cognitive development? **回答** A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience. ### カード 313 **質問** Sensorimotor stage? **回答** Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence. ### カード 314 **質問** Preoperational stage? **回答** Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking. ### カード 315 **質問** Assimilation? **回答** Fitting new information into an existing schema. ### カード 316 **質問** A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task? **回答** In the learner's zone of proximal development. ### カード 317 **質問** Animism in preoperational thought? **回答** Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects. ### カード 318 **質問** Concrete operational stage? **回答** Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation. ### カード 319 **質問** Accommodation? **回答** Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it. ### カード 320 **質問** Reversibility in cognitive development? **回答** Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought. ### カード 321 **質問** How can social learning shape gender expression? **回答** People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior. ### カード 322 **質問** A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process? **回答** Assimilation. ### カード 323 **質問** Language? **回答** A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas. ### カード 324 **質問** Cooing stage? **回答** Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling. ### カード 325 **質問** Babbling stage? **回答** Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words. ### カード 326 **質問** One-word stage? **回答** A child uses single words to express whole ideas. ### カード 327 **質問** Grammar? **回答** A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols. ### カード 328 **質問** A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show? **回答** Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective. ### カード 329 **質問** Crystallized intelligence across adulthood? **回答** Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase. ### カード 330 **質問** A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process? **回答** Accommodation. ### カード 331 **質問** A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this? **回答** Scaffolding. ### カード 332 **質問** A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show? **回答** Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief. ### カード 333 **質問** Fluid intelligence across adulthood? **回答** Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually. ### カード 334 **質問** An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show? **回答** Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen. ### カード 335 **質問** Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing? **回答** Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance. ### カード 336 **質問** Formal operational stage? **回答** Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities. ### カード 337 **質問** Dementia? **回答** A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging. ### カード 338 **質問** Phoneme? **回答** The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language. ### カード 339 **質問** Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view? **回答** Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time. ### カード 340 **質問** Temperament? **回答** Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation. ### カード 341 **質問** Attachment? **回答** An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security. ### カード 342 **質問** Erikson's infancy conflict? **回答** Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security. ### カード 343 **質問** Microsystem? **回答** Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work. ### カード 344 **質問** Erikson's toddler conflict? **回答** Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence. ### カード 345 **質問** Erikson's early-childhood conflict? **回答** Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose. ### カード 346 **質問** Erikson's school-age conflict? **回答** Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence. ### カード 347 **質問** Mesosystem? **回答** Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school. ### カード 348 **質問** Erikson's adolescent conflict? **回答** Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity. ### カード 349 **質問** Erikson's young-adult conflict? **回答** Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships. ### カード 350 **質問** Erikson's middle-adult conflict? **回答** Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation. ### カード 351 **質問** Exosystem? **回答** Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace. ### カード 352 **質問** Morpheme? **回答** The smallest unit that carries meaning. ### カード 353 **質問** Telegraphic speech? **回答** Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words. ### カード 354 **質問** How do nonverbal gestures support language development? **回答** Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words. ### カード 355 **質問** Macrosystem? **回答** The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development. ### カード 356 **質問** Semantics? **回答** The meanings of words and sentences. ### カード 357 **質問** A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this? **回答** Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required. ### カード 358 **質問** What does a sensitive period for language imply? **回答** Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible. ### カード 359 **質問** Does language completely determine thought? **回答** No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words. ### カード 360 **質問** Syntax? **回答** Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences. ### カード 361 **質問** A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits? **回答** Secure attachment. ### カード 362 **質問** How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior? **回答** It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues. ### カード 363 **質問** Authoritative parenting? **回答** High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy. ### カード 364 **質問** Identity achievement? **回答** A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration. ### カード 365 **質問** Avoidant attachment pattern? **回答** The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion. ### カード 366 **質問** Classical conditioning? **回答** Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response. ### カード 367 **質問** Unconditioned stimulus? **回答** A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning. ### カード 368 **質問** Unconditioned response? **回答** The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus. ### カード 369 **質問** Conditioned stimulus? **回答** A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association. ### カード 370 **質問** Conditioned response? **回答** The learned response to a conditioned stimulus. ### カード 371 **質問** Acquisition in classical conditioning? **回答** The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus. ### カード 372 **質問** During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus? **回答** The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next. ### カード 373 **質問** Authoritarian parenting? **回答** Low warmth with strict control and little discussion. ### カード 374 **質問** Identity diffusion? **回答** A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments. ### カード 375 **質問** Extinction in classical conditioning? **回答** The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus. ### カード 376 **質問** Anxious-resistant attachment pattern? **回答** The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion. ### カード 377 **質問** Permissive parenting? **回答** High warmth with few demands or limits. ### カード 378 **質問** Parallel play? **回答** Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination. ### カード 379 **質問** Imaginary audience? **回答** An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them. ### カード 380 **質問** Identity foreclosure? **回答** A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations. ### カード 381 **質問** Disorganized attachment pattern? **回答** The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy. ### カード 382 **質問** Neglectful parenting? **回答** Low warmth and low control or involvement. ### カード 383 **質問** Chronosystem? **回答** Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time. ### カード 384 **質問** Why is pretend play developmentally useful? **回答** It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules. ### カード 385 **質問** Personal fable? **回答** An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them. ### カード 386 **質問** Identity moratorium? **回答** A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment. ### カード 387 **質問** Best claim about adverse childhood experiences? **回答** They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome. ### カード 388 **質問** Separation anxiety in infancy? **回答** Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development. ### カード 389 **質問** What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment? **回答** Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone. ### カード 390 **質問** Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior? **回答** Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions. ### カード 391 **質問** Emerging adulthood? **回答** A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles. ### カード 392 **質問** Social clock? **回答** Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur. ### カード 393 **質問** Erikson's later-adult conflict? **回答** Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret. ### カード 394 **質問** Possible selves? **回答** Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming. ### カード 395 **質問** Stimulus generalization? **回答** Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response. ### カード 396 **質問** Operant conditioning? **回答** Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior. ### カード 397 **質問** Law of effect? **回答** Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely. ### カード 398 **質問** Spontaneous recovery? **回答** An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period. ### カード 399 **質問** Stimulus discrimination? **回答** Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli. ### カード 400 **質問** Reinforcement? **回答** Any consequence that increases a behavior. ### カード 401 **質問** Higher-order conditioning? **回答** An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus. ### カード 402 **質問** Counterconditioning? **回答** Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response. ### カード 403 **質問** Habituation? **回答** A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus. ### カード 404 **質問** Punishment? **回答** Any consequence that decreases a behavior. ### カード 405 **質問** Partial reinforcement? **回答** Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction. ### カード 406 **質問** Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing? **回答** Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn. ### カード 407 **質問** Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have? **回答** It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail. ### カード 408 **質問** Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval? **回答** Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level. ### カード 409 **質問** Fixed-ratio schedule? **回答** Reinforcement follows a set number of responses. ### カード 410 **質問** Observational learning? **回答** Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive. ### カード 411 **質問** A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this? **回答** Positive reinforcement. ### カード 412 **質問** Primary reinforcer? **回答** A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry. ### カード 413 **質問** Variable-ratio schedule? **回答** Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding. ### カード 414 **質問** Modeling? **回答** Performing a behavior after observing it in another person. ### カード 415 **質問** Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule? **回答** A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward. ### カード 416 **質問** Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this? **回答** Negative reinforcement. ### カード 417 **質問** Conditioned reinforcer? **回答** A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise. ### カード 418 **質問** A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change? **回答** Vicarious reinforcement. ### カード 419 **質問** Fixed-interval schedule? **回答** The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced. ### カード 420 **質問** Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule? **回答** A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards. ### カード 421 **質問** A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this? **回答** Positive punishment. ### カード 422 **質問** Shaping? **回答** Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior. ### カード 423 **質問** Extinction in operant conditioning? **回答** A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement. ### カード 424 **質問** Variable-interval schedule? **回答** The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced. ### カード 425 **質問** A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this? **回答** Negative punishment. ### カード 426 **質問** Learned helplessness? **回答** After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible. ### カード 427 **質問** Continuous reinforcement? **回答** Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast. ### カード 428 **質問** A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern? **回答** A fixed-interval schedule. ### カード 429 **質問** Discriminative stimulus? **回答** A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced. ### カード 430 **質問** Operant generalization versus discrimination? **回答** Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement. ### カード 431 **質問** Instinctive drift? **回答** A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior. ### カード 432 **質問** Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule? **回答** A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times. ### カード 433 **質問** How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning? **回答** A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome. ### カード 434 **質問** How does similarity to a model affect observational learning? **回答** Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant. ### カード 435 **質問** Vicarious conditioning? **回答** Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus. ### カード 436 **質問** A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern? **回答** A variable-interval schedule. ### カード 437 **質問** Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim? **回答** Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed. ### カード 438 **質問** Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model? **回答** Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect. ### カード 439 **質問** Latent learning? **回答** Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive. ### カード 440 **質問** Cognitive map? **回答** A mental representation of the layout of an environment. ### カード 441 **質問** Insight learning? **回答** A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps. ### カード 442 **質問** Biological preparedness? **回答** An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others. ### カード 443 **質問** What can mirror-neuron activity show? **回答** Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy. ### カード 444 **質問** Attribution? **回答** An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event. ### カード 445 **質問** Attitude? **回答** An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies. ### カード 446 **質問** Upward social comparison? **回答** Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction. ### カード 447 **質問** Optimistic explanatory style? **回答** Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global. ### カード 448 **質問** Situational attribution? **回答** Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context. ### カード 449 **質問** A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort? **回答** Cognitive dissonance. ### カード 450 **質問** Downward social comparison? **回答** Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation. ### カード 451 **質問** Internal locus of control? **回答** The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes. ### カード 452 **質問** Dispositional attribution? **回答** Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities. ### カード 453 **質問** Pessimistic explanatory style? **回答** Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure. ### カード 454 **質問** Relative deprivation? **回答** Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have. ### カード 455 **質問** External locus of control? **回答** The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces. ### カード 456 **質問** Fundamental attribution error? **回答** Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior. ### カード 457 **質問** Halo effect? **回答** One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person. ### カード 458 **質問** Self-fulfilling prophecy? **回答** An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur. ### カード 459 **質問** Mere-exposure effect? **回答** Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking. ### カード 460 **質問** A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this? **回答** The actor–observer difference. ### カード 461 **質問** A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used? **回答** The central route. ### カード 462 **質問** Effort justification? **回答** Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance. ### カード 463 **質問** Stereotype? **回答** A generalized belief about members of a group. ### カード 464 **質問** A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show? **回答** Self-serving bias. ### カード 465 **質問** A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used? **回答** The peripheral route. ### カード 466 **質問** Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits? **回答** Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance. ### カード 467 **質問** Prejudice? **回答** An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members. ### カード 468 **質問** The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads: | Workload | Errors | | -------- | -----: | | Low | 2 | | High | 8 | Which attribution is better supported? **回答** A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation. ### カード 469 **質問** Why does source credibility affect persuasion? **回答** People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy. ### カード 470 **質問** Conformity? **回答** Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group. ### カード 471 **質問** Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this? **回答** The bystander effect. ### カード 472 **質問** Diffusion of responsibility? **回答** Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act. ### カード 473 **質問** How can taking on a role affect attitude? **回答** Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception. ### カード 474 **質問** In-group bias? **回答** Favoring one's own group over other groups. ### カード 475 **質問** After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this? **回答** The foot-in-the-door technique. ### カード 476 **質問** A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit? **回答** Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would. ### カード 477 **質問** When do attitudes best predict behavior? **回答** When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited. ### カード 478 **質問** Discrimination? **回答** Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership. ### カード 479 **質問** Out-group homogeneity effect? **回答** Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group. ### カード 480 **質問** After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this? **回答** The door-in-the-face technique. ### カード 481 **質問** A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show? **回答** A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation. ### カード 482 **質問** Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest? **回答** A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks. ### カード 483 **質問** Just-world belief? **回答** The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming. ### カード 484 **質問** Implicit attitude? **回答** An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness. ### カード 485 **質問** Ethnocentrism? **回答** Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior. ### カード 486 **質問** How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude? **回答** People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited. ### カード 487 **質問** Normative social influence? **回答** Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection. ### カード 488 **質問** Psychodynamic view of personality? **回答** Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior. ### カード 489 **質問** Norm of reciprocity? **回答** The expectation that people should return help or favors. ### カード 490 **質問** Individualism? **回答** A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity. ### カード 491 **質問** Informational social influence? **回答** Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information. ### カード 492 **質問** Id? **回答** The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle. ### カード 493 **質問** Altruism? **回答** Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward. ### カード 494 **質問** Social norm? **回答** A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior. ### カード 495 **質問** What tends to increase conformity? **回答** Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance. ### カード 496 **質問** Ego? **回答** The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands. ### カード 497 **質問** A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits? **回答** Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response. ### カード 498 **質問** Collectivism? **回答** A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity. ### カード 499 **質問** Obedience? **回答** Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority. ### カード 500 **質問** Superego? **回答** The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards. ### カード 501 **質問** A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits? **回答** Denial. ### カード 502 **質問** Social-responsibility norm? **回答** The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance. ### カード 503 **質問** How does proximity affect attraction? **回答** Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development. ### カード 504 **質問** What tends to increase obedience? **回答** A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person. ### カード 505 **質問** After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits? **回答** Displacement. ### カード 506 **質問** Social loafing? **回答** Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable. ### カード 507 **質問** Multiculturalism? **回答** Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution. ### カード 508 **質問** How does similarity affect attraction? **回答** Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking. ### カード 509 **質問** A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits? **回答** Projection. ### カード 510 **質問** Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation? **回答** Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy. ### カード 511 **質問** Deindividuation? **回答** Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting. ### カード 512 **質問** Group polarization? **回答** Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency. ### カード 513 **質問** After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits? **回答** Rationalization. ### カード 514 **質問** A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this? **回答** Groupthink. ### カード 515 **質問** Pluralistic ignorance? **回答** People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe. ### カード 516 **質問** Social trap? **回答** Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone. ### カード 517 **質問** Reaction formation? **回答** Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse. ### カード 518 **質問** Superordinate goal? **回答** A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation. ### カード 519 **質問** False-consensus effect? **回答** Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior. ### カード 520 **質問** Industrial-organizational psychology? **回答** Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being. ### カード 521 **質問** Repression? **回答** Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness. ### カード 522 **質問** Burnout? **回答** Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress. ### カード 523 **質問** Unconditional positive regard? **回答** Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions. ### カード 524 **質問** Trait? **回答** A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way. ### カード 525 **質問** Regression as a defense mechanism? **回答** Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict. ### カード 526 **質問** Reciprocal determinism? **回答** Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another. ### カード 527 **質問** Self-efficacy? **回答** Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge. ### カード 528 **質問** Self-concept in humanistic theory? **回答** A person's organized understanding of who they are. ### カード 529 **質問** Sublimation as a defense mechanism? **回答** Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity. ### カード 530 **質問** A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident? **回答** Openness. ### カード 531 **質問** Personality inventory? **回答** A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns. ### カード 532 **質問** Self-actualizing tendency? **回答** The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities. ### カード 533 **質問** Self-esteem? **回答** A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value. ### カード 534 **質問** Instinct in motivation research? **回答** An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual. ### カード 535 **質問** A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident? **回答** Conscientiousness. ### カード 536 **質問** Projective test? **回答** An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited. ### カード 537 **質問** How does factor analysis help trait research? **回答** It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits. ### カード 538 **質問** Drive-reduction theory? **回答** A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance. ### カード 539 **質問** A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident? **回答** Extraversion. ### カード 540 **質問** Person–situation debate? **回答** It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts. ### カード 541 **質問** A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe? **回答** The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting. ### カード 542 **質問** Homeostasis? **回答** The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state. ### カード 543 **質問** Incentive theory? **回答** External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them. ### カード 544 **質問** Big Five agreeableness? **回答** Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness. ### カード 545 **質問** A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change? **回答** Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly. ### カード 546 **質問** A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this? **回答** An approach–approach conflict. ### カード 547 **質問** Arousal theory of motivation? **回答** People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation. ### カード 548 **質問** Big Five emotional stability? **回答** A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism. ### カード 549 **質問** What regulates hunger? **回答** Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues. ### カード 550 **質問** Three broad components of emotion? **回答** Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal. ### カード 551 **質問** Self-determination theory? **回答** Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported. ### カード 552 **質問** Emotion regulation? **回答** Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed. ### カード 553 **質問** Sensation-seeking? **回答** A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk. ### カード 554 **質問** Cognitive appraisal in emotion? **回答** Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being. ### カード 555 **質問** Intrinsic motivation? **回答** Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction. ### カード 556 **質問** Display rules? **回答** Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed. ### カード 557 **質問** Arousal and performance relationship? **回答** Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks. ### カード 558 **質問** A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this? **回答** An approach–avoidance conflict. ### カード 559 **質問** Extrinsic motivation? **回答** Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment. ### カード 560 **質問** Achievement motivation? **回答** The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success. ### カード 561 **質問** Four sensation-seeking dimensions? **回答** Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility. ### カード 562 **質問** A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this? **回答** An avoidance–avoidance conflict. ### カード 563 **質問** Overjustification effect? **回答** Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed. ### カード 564 **質問** Belongingness motivation? **回答** The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people. ### カード 565 **質問** Study time changed after students chose their own topic: | Condition | Mean minutes | | -------------- | -----------: | | Assigned topic | 34 | | Chosen topic | 47 | What is the observed mean difference? **回答** 13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant. ### カード 566 **質問** Facial-feedback effect? **回答** Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences. ### カード 567 **質問** Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation? **回答** Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience. ### カード 568 **質問** A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this? **回答** Cognitive reappraisal. ### カード 569 **質問** Broaden-and-build view? **回答** Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources. ### カード 570 **質問** Which emotions often appear across cultures? **回答** Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed. ### カード 571 **質問** How can the same arousal become different emotions? **回答** Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently. ### カード 572 **質問** Expressive suppression? **回答** Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen. ### カード 573 **質問** How does acute stress affect the body? **回答** It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands. ### カード 574 **質問** Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded? **回答** That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression. ### カード 575 **質問** In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present? **回答** A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias. ### カード 576 **質問** A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show? **回答** A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other. ### カード 577 **質問** Health psychology? **回答** The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness. ### カード 578 **質問** Positive psychology? **回答** The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive. ### カード 579 **質問** Stress? **回答** The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding. ### カード 580 **質問** A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative? **回答** The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative. ### カード 581 **質問** Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology? **回答** They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes. ### カード 582 **質問** Resilience? **回答** Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected. ### カード 583 **質問** Stressor? **回答** An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope. ### カード 584 **質問** General adaptation syndrome? **回答** A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress. ### カード 585 **質問** A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this? **回答** Problem-focused coping. ### カード 586 **質問** A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply? **回答** Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee. ### カード 587 **質問** A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this? **回答** Primary appraisal. ### カード 588 **質問** What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome? **回答** A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered. ### カード 589 **質問** How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress? **回答** One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time. ### カード 590 **質問** A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this? **回答** Emotion-focused coping. ### カード 591 **質問** The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this? **回答** Secondary appraisal. ### カード 592 **質問** Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk? **回答** Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function. ### カード 593 **質問** Adverse childhood experiences? **回答** Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome. ### カード 594 **質問** How can social support protect health? **回答** It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress. ### カード 595 **質問** Eustress versus distress? **回答** Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming. ### カード 596 **質問** Tend-and-befriend response? **回答** Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women. ### カード 597 **質問** Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses? **回答** Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity. ### カード 598 **質問** Biofeedback? **回答** Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity. ### カード 599 **質問** How does perceived control affect stress? **回答** A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it. ### カード 600 **質問** Psychoneuroimmunology? **回答** The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function. ### カード 601 **質問** Subjective well-being? **回答** A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion. ### カード 602 **質問** Psychological disorder? **回答** A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment. ### カード 603 **質問** How can gratitude practice affect well-being? **回答** Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary. ### カード 604 **質問** A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population? **回答** The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population. ### カード 605 **質問** Signature strengths? **回答** Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately. ### カード 606 **質問** Biopsychosocial model? **回答** Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder. ### カード 607 **質問** Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology? **回答** Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence. ### カード 608 **質問** Posttraumatic growth? **回答** Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm. ### カード 609 **質問** An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability? **回答** Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences. ### カード 610 **質問** A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider? **回答** Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers. ### カード 611 **質問** A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant? **回答** Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important. ### カード 612 **質問** A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows? **回答** Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim. ### カード 613 **質問** Biological explanation of disorder? **回答** It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors. ### カード 614 **質問** Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? **回答** A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning. ### カード 615 **質問** Purpose of the DSM? **回答** It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning. ### カード 616 **質問** What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study? **回答** The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent. ### カード 617 **質問** Behavioral explanation of disorder? **回答** It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation. ### カード 618 **質問** Autism spectrum disorder? **回答** A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs. ### カード 619 **質問** Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas? **回答** Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms. ### カード 620 **質問** Major depressive disorder? **回答** A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning. ### カード 621 **質問** Specific phobia? **回答** Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress. ### カード 622 **質問** Obsessive-compulsive disorder? **回答** Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment. ### カード 623 **質問** Dissociative amnesia? **回答** Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting. ### カード 624 **質問** Bipolar I disorder? **回答** A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes. ### カード 625 **質問** Posttraumatic stress disorder? **回答** Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure. ### カード 626 **質問** Anorexia nervosa? **回答** Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience. ### カード 627 **質問** Cognitive explanation of disorder? **回答** It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns. ### カード 628 **質問** Bipolar II disorder? **回答** A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode. ### カード 629 **質問** Purpose of the ICD? **回答** The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders. ### カード 630 **質問** Bulimia nervosa? **回答** Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight. ### カード 631 **質問** What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern? **回答** An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment. ### カード 632 **質問** Ataque de nervios? **回答** A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control. ### カード 633 **質問** Psychodynamic explanation of disorder? **回答** It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships. ### カード 634 **質問** Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder? **回答** Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context. ### カード 635 **質問** When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow? **回答** Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception. ### カード 636 **質問** Comorbidity? **回答** The presence of two or more disorders in the same person. ### カード 637 **質問** Humanistic explanation of distress? **回答** It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth. ### カード 638 **質問** Confidential versus anonymous research data? **回答** Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links. ### カード 639 **質問** Stigma around mental disorder? **回答** Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking. ### カード 640 **質問** Why must diagnosis consider culture? **回答** Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context. ### カード 641 **質問** Sociocultural explanation of disorder? **回答** It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context. ### カード 642 **質問** Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked? **回答** Interrater reliability. ### カード 643 **質問** A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion? **回答** Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders. ### カード 644 **質問** Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes? **回答** Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case. ### カード 645 **質問** Evolutionary explanation of disorder? **回答** It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction. ### カード 646 **質問** Delusion? **回答** A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context. ### カード 647 **質問** Agoraphobia? **回答** Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone. ### カード 648 **質問** Best account of schizophrenia risk? **回答** Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors. ### カード 649 **質問** Eclectic approach to disorder? **回答** Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them. ### カード 650 **質問** Hallucination? **回答** A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus. ### カード 651 **質問** Panic disorder? **回答** Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks. ### カード 652 **質問** Best account of depressive-disorder causes? **回答** Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events. ### カード 653 **質問** Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits? **回答** The diathesis–stress model. ### カード 654 **質問** Cluster A personality disorders? **回答** The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders. ### カード 655 **質問** What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find? **回答** Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client. ### カード 656 **質問** Evidence-based treatment? **回答** Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences. ### カード 657 **質問** Therapeutic alliance? **回答** A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work. ### カード 658 **質問** Cultural humility in therapy? **回答** Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience. ### カード 659 **質問** Deinstitutionalization? **回答** Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication. ### カード 660 **質問** A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this? **回答** Exposure therapy. ### カード 661 **質問** Nonmaleficence in therapy? **回答** Avoiding or minimizing harm. ### カード 662 **質問** Four medication categories in the course? **回答** Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications. ### カード 663 **質問** Depressive cognitive triad? **回答** Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future. ### カード 664 **質問** Applied behavior analysis? **回答** Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior. ### カード 665 **質問** Psychosurgery? **回答** Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible. ### カード 666 **質問** Free association? **回答** A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes. ### カード 667 **質問** A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this? **回答** Cognitive restructuring. ### カード 668 **質問** One advantage of group therapy? **回答** Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone. ### カード 669 **質問** Lobotomy? **回答** An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm. ### カード 670 **質問** Best account of bipolar-disorder causes? **回答** Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes. ### カード 671 **質問** Cognitive-behavioral therapy? **回答** Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together. ### カード 672 **質問** Disorganized speech in schizophrenia? **回答** Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways. ### カード 673 **質問** Social anxiety disorder? **回答** Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations. ### カード 674 **質問** Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes? **回答** Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs. ### カード 675 **質問** Rational-emotive behavior therapy? **回答** A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives. ### カード 676 **質問** Dissociative fugue? **回答** Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity. ### カード 677 **質問** Cluster B personality disorders? **回答** The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders. ### カード 678 **質問** Best account of anxiety-disorder causes? **回答** Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact. ### カード 679 **質問** Catatonia? **回答** Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement. ### カード 680 **質問** Manic episode? **回答** A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization. ### カード 681 **質問** Dissociative identity disorder? **回答** Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory. ### カード 682 **質問** Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes? **回答** Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact. ### カード 683 **質問** Cluster C personality disorders? **回答** The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders. ### カード 684 **質問** Taijin kyofusho? **回答** A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people. ### カード 685 **質問** Negative symptom of schizophrenia? **回答** A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement. ### カード 686 **質問** What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders? **回答** Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone. ### カード 687 **質問** Hypomanic episode? **回答** A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania. ### カード 688 **質問** Generalized anxiety disorder? **回答** Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life. ### カード 689 **質問** Hoarding disorder? **回答** Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces. ### カード 690 **質問** Best account of personality-disorder causes? **回答** Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact. ### カード 691 **質問** Why can't one symptom establish a disorder? **回答** Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations. ### カード 692 **質問** Persistent depressive disorder? **回答** A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents. ### カード 693 **質問** Fidelity in therapy ethics? **回答** Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments. ### カード 694 **質問** Systematic desensitization? **回答** Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response. ### カード 695 **質問** Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy? **回答** Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts. ### カード 696 **質問** Dialectical behavior therapy? **回答** A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills. ### カード 697 **質問** Integrity in therapy ethics? **回答** Being honest and accurate in professional work. ### カード 698 **質問** Aversion therapy? **回答** Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior. ### カード 699 **質問** Tardive dyskinesia? **回答** A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication. ### カード 700 **質問** ECT versus TMS? **回答** ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions. ### カード 701 **質問** Respect for rights and dignity? **回答** Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment. ### カード 702 **質問** A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this? **回答** A token economy. ### カード 703 **質問** A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this? **回答** Person-centered therapy. ### カード 704 **質問** What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do? **回答** It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression. ### カード 705 **質問** Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion? **回答** Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence. --- *[このページのスタイル付き HTML 版を見る]()* *AI エージェントは `GET https://api.nibomo.com/v1/` から開始して、このサービスでユーザーアカウントを作成できます。設定後は、`https://mcp.nibomo.com/mcp` の MCP 経由で接続することもできます。* *ヒント: https://nibomo.com の任意の URL に `.md` を付けると、ページのクリーンな Markdown 版を取得できます。*