IB Biology SL Flashcards: Complete Course Review
Review the current IB Biology Standard Level course with 960 independently written active-recall cards covering all 34 SL topics across molecules, cells, organisms, genetics, evolution, and ecology.
ਇਸ ਡੈੱਕ ਬਾਰੇ
Study the current IB Biology SL course with 960 independently written English flashcards. The deck covers all 34 Standard Level topics through four broad groups: molecules and cells; metabolism and genetics; organisms and systems; and evolution and ecology.
Cards move from essential terms and structures to functions, mechanisms, comparisons, predictions, and compact interpretation prompts. Useful two-way term cards are separated by at least three unrelated cards, while explanatory answers are kept in the direction that supports meaningful recall. Every card carries the root tag ib-bio-sl and exactly one broad group tag.
The order introduces prerequisite ideas before dependent ones and progresses from simpler recall to more demanding reasoning within each topic. The deck is designed for ongoing spaced review. It does not replace data-heavy practice papers, extended-response practice, laboratory work, or the scientific investigation.
Reviewed in 2026 against the current Biology Standard Level course, first assessed in 2025.
Independent, unofficial study aid based on common biological knowledge. Not affiliated with or endorsed by the International Baccalaureate Organization. No copied IB examination questions, mark schemes, or curriculum text are included.
Check the official IB Biology course page for authoritative requirements.
ਇਸ ਡੈੱਕ ਦੇ ਕਾਰਡ
ਕਾਰਡ 1
ਸਵਾਲ
What is water polarity?
ਜਵਾਬ
The unequal sharing of electrons in a water molecule, giving oxygen a partial negative charge and the hydrogens partial positive charges.
ਕਾਰਡ 2
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a hydrogen bond?
ਜਵਾਬ
A weak attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a partially negative atom in another molecule.
ਕਾਰਡ 3
ਸਵਾਲ
What is cohesion?
ਜਵਾਬ
Attraction between molecules of the same substance.
ਕਾਰਡ 4
ਸਵਾਲ
What is adhesion?
ਜਵਾਬ
Attraction between molecules of different substances.
ਕਾਰਡ 5
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes unequal charge distribution within a water molecule?
ਜਵਾਬ
water polarity
ਕਾਰਡ 6
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the intermolecular attraction that links neighboring water molecules?
ਜਵਾਬ
a hydrogen bond
ਕਾਰਡ 7
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes attraction between molecules of the same substance?
ਜਵਾਬ
cohesion
ਕਾਰਡ 8
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes attraction between water and a different material?
ਜਵਾਬ
adhesion
ਕਾਰਡ 9
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a solvent?
ਜਵਾਬ
A liquid that dissolves solutes to form a solution.
ਕਾਰਡ 10
ਸਵਾਲ
What is specific heat capacity?
ਜਵਾਬ
The energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree.
ਕਾਰਡ 11
ਸਵਾਲ
What is latent heat of vaporization?
ਜਵਾਬ
The energy required to vaporize a specified amount of liquid without changing its temperature.
ਕਾਰਡ 12
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does ice float on liquid water?
ਜਵਾਬ
Hydrogen bonds hold water molecules in an open lattice in ice, making ice less dense than liquid water.
ਕਾਰਡ 13
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a liquid that dissolves solutes?
ਜਵਾਬ
a solvent
ਕਾਰਡ 14
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the energy needed to raise a unit mass by one degree?
ਜਵਾਬ
specific heat capacity
ਕਾਰਡ 15
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the energy needed to vaporize a liquid without a temperature change?
ਜਵਾਬ
latent heat of vaporization
ਕਾਰਡ 16
ਸਵਾਲ
Which property of water makes sweating an effective cooling mechanism?
ਜਵਾਬ
Water absorbs substantial energy as it evaporates; the highest-energy molecules leave, carrying heat away from the skin.
ਕਾਰਡ 17
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does water resist rapid temperature change?
ਜਵਾਬ
Many hydrogen bonds must absorb energy before molecular motion increases substantially, giving water a high specific heat capacity.
ਕਾਰਡ 18
ਸਵਾਲ
How do cohesion and adhesion support water transport in narrow tubes?
ਜਵਾਬ
Cohesion keeps water molecules connected, while adhesion helps the water column cling to the tube wall.
ਕਾਰਡ 19
ਸਵਾਲ
How does water participate differently in hydrolysis and condensation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Hydrolysis consumes water to split a bond; condensation forms a bond and releases water.
ਕਾਰਡ 20
ਸਵਾਲ
How does floating ice protect aquatic life in winter?
ਜਵਾਬ
Surface ice insulates the liquid water below, slowing further heat loss and preventing the whole body of water from freezing rapidly.
ਕਾਰਡ 21
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is water effective for transporting many biological solutes?
ਜਵਾਬ
Its polarity allows ions and other polar molecules to become surrounded and dispersed in solution.
ਕਾਰਡ 22
ਸਵਾਲ
Why do nonpolar substances tend to cluster in water?
ਜਵਾਬ
Clustering reduces the nonpolar surface exposed to water, allowing more water molecules to maintain hydrogen-bond interactions.
ਕਾਰਡ 23
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a nucleotide?
ਜਵਾਬ
A nucleic-acid monomer made of a pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
ਕਾਰਡ 24
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a nucleoside?
ਜਵਾਬ
A nitrogenous base joined to a pentose sugar, without a phosphate group.
ਕਾਰਡ 25
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a phosphodiester bond?
ਜਵਾਬ
A covalent bond linking the phosphate of one nucleotide to the sugar of the next nucleotide.
ਕਾਰਡ 26
ਸਵਾਲ
What is DNA?
ਜਵਾਬ
A usually double-stranded nucleic acid that stores hereditary information in its base sequence.
ਕਾਰਡ 27
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a sugar-phosphate-base monomer?
ਜਵਾਬ
a nucleotide
ਕਾਰਡ 28
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a base joined to a sugar but no phosphate?
ਜਵਾਬ
a nucleoside
ਕਾਰਡ 29
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the covalent linkage in a nucleic-acid sugar-phosphate backbone?
ਜਵਾਬ
a phosphodiester bond
ਕਾਰਡ 30
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the nucleic acid that usually stores hereditary information?
ਜਵਾਬ
DNA
ਕਾਰਡ 31
ਸਵਾਲ
What is RNA?
ਜਵਾਬ
A usually single-stranded nucleic acid involved in expressing and regulating genetic information.
ਕਾਰਡ 32
ਸਵਾਲ
What are antiparallel DNA strands?
ਜਵਾਬ
Two DNA strands that run in opposite 5′ to 3′ directions.
ਕਾਰਡ 33
ਸਵਾਲ
What is complementary base pairing?
ਜਵਾਬ
Specific pairing in which adenine pairs with thymine in DNA, or uracil in RNA, and cytosine pairs with guanine.
ਕਾਰਡ 34
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a purine?
ਜਵਾਬ
A nitrogenous base with two fused rings; adenine and guanine are purines.
ਕਾਰਡ 35
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the usually single-stranded nucleic acid used in gene expression?
ਜਵਾਬ
RNA
ਕਾਰਡ 36
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes DNA strands running in opposite directions?
ਜਵਾਬ
antiparallel DNA strands
ਕਾਰਡ 37
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes specific A–T or A–U and C–G pairing?
ਜਵਾਬ
complementary base pairing
ਕਾਰਡ 38
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a two-ring nitrogenous base?
ਜਵਾਬ
a purine
ਕਾਰਡ 39
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a pyrimidine?
ਜਵਾਬ
A nitrogenous base with one ring; cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyrimidines.
ਕਾਰਡ 40
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a genome?
ਜਵਾਬ
The complete genetic material of an organism or cell.
ਕਾਰਡ 41
ਸਵਾਲ
What three structural features commonly distinguish RNA from DNA?
ਜਵਾਬ
RNA usually contains ribose, uses uracil instead of thymine, and is single-stranded rather than double-stranded.
ਕਾਰਡ 42
ਸਵਾਲ
What determines the base sequence of the second DNA strand?
ਜਵਾਬ
Complementary base-pairing rules determine it: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G.
ਕਾਰਡ 43
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a one-ring nitrogenous base?
ਜਵਾਬ
a pyrimidine
ਕਾਰਡ 44
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the complete genetic material of an organism?
ਜਵਾਬ
a genome
ਕਾਰਡ 45
ਸਵਾਲ
What do the 5′ and 3′ labels of a nucleic-acid strand refer to?
ਜਵਾਬ
They refer to numbered carbon atoms in the pentose sugar and define the strand's chemical direction.
ਕਾਰਡ 46
ਸਵਾਲ
Where is genetic information encoded in DNA?
ਜਵਾਬ
In the order of nitrogenous bases along the DNA strand.
ਕਾਰਡ 47
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is ATP classified as a nucleotide?
ਜਵਾਬ
It contains adenine, ribose, and phosphate groups, the three component types of a nucleotide.
ਕਾਰਡ 48
ਸਵਾਲ
How do mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA contribute to protein synthesis?
ਜਵਾਬ
mRNA carries the coding sequence, tRNA delivers amino acids, and rRNA forms the catalytic and structural core of ribosomes.
ਕਾਰਡ 49
ਸਵਾਲ
How are a gene and a chromosome related?
ਜਵਾਬ
A gene is a DNA sequence with a biological function; a chromosome is one long DNA molecule containing many genes and other sequences.
ਕਾਰਡ 50
ਸਵਾਲ
What happens to double-stranded DNA when it is denatured by heat?
ਜਵਾਬ
Hydrogen bonds between complementary bases break and the two strands separate; the covalent backbones usually remain intact.
ਕਾਰਡ 51
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can each DNA strand serve as a template during replication?
ਜਵਾਬ
Its base sequence determines a complementary sequence through specific base pairing.
ਕਾਰਡ 52
ਸਵਾਲ
In which direction are new nucleic-acid strands synthesized?
ਜਵਾਬ
Nucleotides are added to the 3′ end, so synthesis proceeds 5′ to 3′.
ਕਾਰਡ 53
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a monosaccharide?
ਜਵਾਬ
A single sugar unit that can serve as a carbohydrate monomer.
ਕਾਰਡ 54
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a disaccharide?
ਜਵਾਬ
A carbohydrate formed from two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic bond.
ਕਾਰਡ 55
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a polysaccharide?
ਜਵਾਬ
A polymer made from many monosaccharide units.
ਕਾਰਡ 56
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a glycosidic bond?
ਜਵਾਬ
A covalent bond joining monosaccharides in a carbohydrate.
ਕਾਰਡ 57
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a single sugar unit?
ਜਵਾਬ
a monosaccharide
ਕਾਰਡ 58
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes two monosaccharides joined together?
ਜਵਾਬ
a disaccharide
ਕਾਰਡ 59
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a polymer of many sugar units?
ਜਵਾਬ
a polysaccharide
ਕਾਰਡ 60
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the covalent linkage between monosaccharides?
ਜਵਾਬ
a glycosidic bond
ਕਾਰਡ 61
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a triglyceride?
ਜਵਾਬ
A lipid formed from glycerol joined to three fatty acids.
ਕਾਰਡ 62
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a fatty acid?
ਜਵਾਬ
A hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group that can form part of many lipids.
ਕਾਰਡ 63
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a saturated fatty acid?
ਜਵਾਬ
A fatty acid with no carbon-carbon double bonds in its hydrocarbon chain.
ਕਾਰਡ 64
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a phospholipid?
ਜਵਾਬ
An amphipathic lipid with a phosphate-containing hydrophilic head and hydrophobic fatty-acid tails.
ਕਾਰਡ 65
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes glycerol joined to three fatty acids?
ਜਵਾਬ
a triglyceride
ਕਾਰਡ 66
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a hydrocarbon chain ending in a carboxyl group?
ਜਵਾਬ
a fatty acid
ਕਾਰਡ 67
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a fatty acid without carbon-carbon double bonds?
ਜਵਾਬ
a saturated fatty acid
ਕਾਰਡ 68
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a lipid with a polar head and nonpolar tails?
ਜਵਾਬ
a phospholipid
ਕਾਰਡ 69
ਸਵਾਲ
How is a glycosidic bond formed between two monosaccharides?
ਜਵਾਬ
A condensation reaction joins them and releases a molecule of water.
ਕਾਰਡ 70
ਸਵਾਲ
How is a polysaccharide broken into smaller sugars?
ਜਵਾਬ
Hydrolysis adds water across glycosidic bonds, splitting the polymer.
ਕਾਰਡ 71
ਸਵਾਲ
Which polysaccharides store glucose in plants and animals?
ਜਵਾਬ
Starch stores glucose in plants; glycogen stores glucose in animals and fungi.
ਕਾਰਡ 72
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is cellulose suitable for plant cell walls?
ਜਵਾਬ
Its straight β-glucose chains hydrogen-bond into strong microfibrils that resist stretching.
ਕਾਰਡ 73
ਸਵਾਲ
Why do lipids store more energy per gram than carbohydrates?
ਜਵਾਬ
Lipids contain more energy-rich carbon-hydrogen bonds and are more reduced.
ਕਾਰਡ 74
ਸਵਾਲ
Why do phospholipids form bilayers in water?
ਜਵਾਬ
Hydrophilic heads interact with water while hydrophobic tails cluster away from water.
ਕਾਰਡ 75
ਸਵਾਲ
Besides energy storage, what are three biological roles of lipids?
ਜਵਾਬ
They form membranes, provide thermal insulation and cushioning, and can act as signaling molecules.
ਕਾਰਡ 76
ਸਵਾਲ
How do cis double bonds affect fatty-acid packing and melting point?
ਜਵਾਬ
They introduce bends that reduce close packing, usually lowering the melting point.
ਕਾਰਡ 77
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an amino acid?
ਜਵਾਬ
A protein monomer with an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, and a variable R group attached to a central carbon.
ਕਾਰਡ 78
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a peptide bond?
ਜਵਾਬ
The covalent bond formed between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another.
ਕਾਰਡ 79
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a polypeptide?
ਜਵਾਬ
A chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
ਕਾਰਡ 80
ਸਵਾਲ
What is protein primary structure?
ਜਵਾਬ
The amino-acid sequence of a polypeptide.
ਕਾਰਡ 81
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a protein monomer with amino, carboxyl, and variable R groups?
ਜਵਾਬ
an amino acid
ਕਾਰਡ 82
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the covalent linkage between amino acids?
ਜਵਾਬ
a peptide bond
ਕਾਰਡ 83
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a chain of peptide-linked amino acids?
ਜਵਾਬ
a polypeptide
ਕਾਰਡ 84
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a protein's amino-acid sequence?
ਜਵਾਬ
protein primary structure
ਕਾਰਡ 85
ਸਵਾਲ
What is protein secondary structure?
ਜਵਾਬ
Local folding such as α-helices and β-sheets stabilized mainly by backbone hydrogen bonds.
ਕਾਰਡ 86
ਸਵਾਲ
What is protein tertiary structure?
ਜਵਾਬ
The overall three-dimensional shape of one polypeptide produced by interactions among R groups and the backbone.
ਕਾਰਡ 87
ਸਵਾਲ
What is protein quaternary structure?
ਜਵਾਬ
The arrangement of multiple polypeptide subunits in one functional protein.
ਕਾਰਡ 88
ਸਵਾਲ
What is protein denaturation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Loss of a protein's normal three-dimensional shape and therefore usually its function.
ਕਾਰਡ 89
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes local α-helix and β-sheet folding?
ਜਵਾਬ
protein secondary structure
ਕਾਰਡ 90
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the overall three-dimensional shape of one polypeptide?
ਜਵਾਬ
protein tertiary structure
ਕਾਰਡ 91
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the association of multiple polypeptide subunits?
ਜਵਾਬ
protein quaternary structure
ਕਾਰਡ 92
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes loss of a protein's native shape?
ਜਵਾਬ
protein denaturation
ਕਾਰਡ 93
ਸਵਾਲ
What mainly gives different amino acids their different chemical properties?
ਜਵਾਬ
Their variable R groups.
ਕਾਰਡ 94
ਸਵਾਲ
What reaction forms a peptide bond?
ਜਵਾਬ
A condensation reaction releases water as the amino and carboxyl groups join.
ਕਾਰਡ 95
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can high temperature denature a protein?
ਜਵਾਬ
Increased molecular motion disrupts weak interactions that maintain the protein's shape.
ਕਾਰਡ 96
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can extreme pH denature a protein?
ਜਵਾਬ
It changes the charges of R groups and disrupts ionic and hydrogen-bond interactions.
ਕਾਰਡ 97
ਸਵਾਲ
How do fibrous and globular proteins generally differ?
ਜਵਾਬ
Fibrous proteins are elongated and mainly structural; globular proteins are compact and often perform dynamic functions.
ਕਾਰਡ 98
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is three-dimensional shape crucial to protein function?
ਜਵਾਬ
It creates specific binding, catalytic, structural, or interaction surfaces.
ਕਾਰਡ 99
ਸਵਾਲ
Name four broad biological roles of proteins.
ਜਵਾਬ
Catalysis, transport, signaling, defense, movement, and structural support are major roles; any four are sufficient.
ਕਾਰਡ 100
ਸਵਾਲ
How can changing one amino acid alter protein function?
ਜਵਾਬ
The substitution can change R-group interactions, folding, stability, or an active or binding site.
ਕਾਰਡ 101
ਸਵਾਲ
What is cell theory?
ਜਵਾਬ
The principles that living organisms are made of cells, cells are the basic units of life, and cells arise from pre-existing cells.
ਕਾਰਡ 102
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a prokaryotic cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
A cell without a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles.
ਕਾਰਡ 103
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a eukaryotic cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
A cell with DNA enclosed in a nucleus and with membrane-bound organelles.
ਕਾਰਡ 104
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the nucleus?
ਜਵਾਬ
The double-membrane organelle that contains most of a eukaryotic cell's DNA.
ਕਾਰਡ 105
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the principles describing cells as life's basic units?
ਜਵਾਬ
cell theory
ਕਾਰਡ 106
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a cell lacking a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles?
ਜਵਾਬ
a prokaryotic cell
ਕਾਰਡ 107
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a cell with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles?
ਜਵਾਬ
a eukaryotic cell
ਕਾਰਡ 108
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the organelle containing most eukaryotic DNA?
ਜਵਾਬ
the nucleus
ਕਾਰਡ 109
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a ribosome?
ਜਵਾਬ
A molecular complex of rRNA and proteins that synthesizes polypeptides.
ਕਾਰਡ 110
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the cytoplasm?
ਜਵਾਬ
The material inside the plasma membrane but outside the nucleus, including cytosol and organelles.
ਕਾਰਡ 111
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the plasma membrane?
ਜਵਾਬ
The selectively permeable boundary separating a cell from its environment.
ਕਾਰਡ 112
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a cell wall?
ਜਵਾਬ
A rigid extracellular layer that supports and protects cells in plants, fungi, and most prokaryotes.
ਕਾਰਡ 113
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the complex that synthesizes polypeptides?
ਜਵਾਬ
a ribosome
ਕਾਰਡ 114
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes cell contents inside the plasma membrane but outside the nucleus?
ਜਵਾਬ
the cytoplasm
ਕਾਰਡ 115
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the selectively permeable cell boundary?
ਜਵਾਬ
the plasma membrane
ਕਾਰਡ 116
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a rigid extracellular support layer?
ਜਵਾਬ
a cell wall
ਕਾਰਡ 117
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the nucleoid?
ਜਵਾਬ
The non-membrane-bound region containing the main chromosome of a prokaryotic cell.
ਕਾਰਡ 118
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the cytoskeleton?
ਜਵਾਬ
A dynamic network of protein filaments involved in cell shape, transport, division, and movement.
ਕਾਰਡ 119
ਸਵਾਲ
What structures are shared by all cells?
ਜਵਾਬ
A plasma membrane, cytoplasm, genetic material, and ribosomes.
ਕਾਰਡ 120
ਸਵਾਲ
Which structures distinguish a typical plant cell from a typical animal cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
A plant cell has a cellulose wall, chloroplasts in photosynthetic tissues, and a large central vacuole; an animal cell lacks these.
ਕਾਰਡ 121
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the prokaryotic chromosome-containing region?
ਜਵਾਬ
the nucleoid
ਕਾਰਡ 122
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the internal network of protein filaments?
ਜਵਾਬ
the cytoskeleton
ਕਾਰਡ 123
ਸਵਾਲ
How is genetic material commonly organized in a prokaryotic cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
The main DNA is usually one circular chromosome in the nucleoid, often accompanied by smaller plasmids.
ਕਾਰਡ 124
ਸਵਾਲ
How is microscope magnification calculated?
ਜਵਾਬ
Magnification = image size ÷ actual size, using the same units.
ਕਾਰਡ 125
ਸਵਾਲ
What does microscope resolution describe?
ਜਵਾਬ
The ability to distinguish two close points as separate.
ਕਾਰਡ 126
ਸਵਾਲ
Arrange these from smallest to largest: ribosome, bacterium, animal cell.
ਜਵਾਬ
Ribosome, bacterium, animal cell.
ਕਾਰਡ 127
ਸਵਾਲ
How does the cytoskeleton support intracellular transport?
ਜਵਾਬ
Motor proteins move vesicles and other cargo along cytoskeletal filaments.
ਕਾਰਡ 128
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does a small cell usually exchange materials more efficiently than a geometrically similar large cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
It has a larger surface-area-to-volume ratio, providing more exchange surface per unit of cell contents.
ਕਾਰਡ 129
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is a cell more than a collection of isolated molecules?
ਜਵਾਬ
Organized interactions among components produce emergent functions such as metabolism, regulation, and reproduction.
ਕਾਰਡ 130
ਸਵਾਲ
What major advantage do membrane-bound organelles give eukaryotic cells?
ਜਵਾਬ
They separate incompatible reactions and create specialized local conditions.
ਕਾਰਡ 131
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a phospholipid bilayer?
ਜਵਾਬ
A double layer of phospholipids with hydrophilic heads facing water and hydrophobic tails facing inward.
ਕਾਰਡ 132
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the fluid mosaic model?
ਜਵਾਬ
A model describing membranes as mobile phospholipids containing a changing mosaic of proteins and other components.
ਕਾਰਡ 133
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an integral membrane protein?
ਜਵਾਬ
A protein embedded in the bilayer, often spanning it.
ਕਾਰਡ 134
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a peripheral membrane protein?
ਜਵਾਬ
A protein attached to a membrane surface rather than embedded in the bilayer.
ਕਾਰਡ 135
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a double phospholipid layer with inward-facing tails?
ਜਵਾਬ
a phospholipid bilayer
ਕਾਰਡ 136
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the model of a mobile lipid layer containing varied proteins?
ਜਵਾਬ
the fluid mosaic model
ਕਾਰਡ 137
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a protein embedded within the lipid bilayer?
ਜਵਾਬ
an integral membrane protein
ਕਾਰਡ 138
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a protein attached to a membrane surface?
ਜਵਾਬ
a peripheral membrane protein
ਕਾਰਡ 139
ਸਵਾਲ
What is membrane cholesterol?
ਜਵਾਬ
An amphipathic lipid that buffers membrane fluidity and reduces permeability in animal cells.
ਕਾਰਡ 140
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a glycoprotein?
ਜਵਾਬ
A protein with an attached carbohydrate chain, often used in recognition, adhesion, or signaling.
ਕਾਰਡ 141
ਸਵਾਲ
What is diffusion?
ਜਵਾਬ
Net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration due to random motion.
ਕਾਰਡ 142
ਸਵਾਲ
What is osmosis?
ਜਵਾਬ
Net movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from higher water potential to lower water potential.
ਕਾਰਡ 143
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the animal-membrane lipid that buffers fluidity?
ਜਵਾਬ
membrane cholesterol
ਕਾਰਡ 144
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a carbohydrate-bearing protein?
ਜਵਾਬ
a glycoprotein
ਕਾਰਡ 145
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes net movement down a concentration gradient?
ਜਵਾਬ
diffusion
ਕਾਰਡ 146
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes net water movement across a selectively permeable membrane?
ਜਵਾਬ
osmosis
ਕਾਰਡ 147
ਸਵਾਲ
What is facilitated diffusion?
ਜਵਾਬ
Passive movement down a gradient through a membrane channel or carrier protein.
ਕਾਰਡ 148
ਸਵਾਲ
What is active transport?
ਜਵਾਬ
Energy-requiring movement of a substance against its concentration or electrochemical gradient.
ਕਾਰਡ 149
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is the phospholipid bilayer selectively permeable?
ਜਵਾਬ
Its hydrophobic interior allows small nonpolar molecules through more readily than ions and most large or polar molecules.
ਕਾਰਡ 150
ਸਵਾਲ
How do simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion differ?
ਜਵਾਬ
Both are passive, but facilitated diffusion uses specific membrane proteins while simple diffusion passes through the bilayer.
ਕਾਰਡ 151
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes passive transport through a channel or carrier?
ਜਵਾਬ
facilitated diffusion
ਕਾਰਡ 152
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes energy-dependent transport against a gradient?
ਜਵਾਬ
active transport
ਕਾਰਡ 153
ਸਵਾਲ
How do channel and carrier proteins differ?
ਜਵਾਬ
Channels provide hydrophilic pores; carriers bind solutes and change shape to move them.
ਕਾਰਡ 154
ਸਵਾਲ
How can an ATP-driven pump maintain an ion gradient?
ਜਵਾਬ
It couples ATP hydrolysis to a conformational change that moves ions against their electrochemical gradient.
ਕਾਰਡ 155
ਸਵਾਲ
How does endocytosis move material into a cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
The plasma membrane folds inward and pinches off a vesicle containing the material.
ਕਾਰਡ 156
ਸਵਾਲ
How does exocytosis move material out of a cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
An intracellular vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane and releases its contents outside.
ਕਾਰਡ 157
ਸਵਾਲ
What happens to an animal cell in a strongly hypotonic solution?
ਜਵਾਬ
Water enters by osmosis; without a cell wall, the cell may swell and lyse.
ਕਾਰਡ 158
ਸਵਾਲ
Does molecular movement stop when diffusion reaches equilibrium?
ਜਵਾਬ
No. Molecules continue moving randomly, but there is no net movement between regions.
ਕਾਰਡ 159
ਸਵਾਲ
How does decreasing temperature generally affect membrane fluidity?
ਜਵਾਬ
It reduces phospholipid movement and makes the membrane less fluid.
ਕਾਰਡ 160
ਸਵਾਲ
Why do unsaturated fatty-acid tails increase membrane fluidity?
ਜਵਾਬ
Their cis double-bond bends prevent phospholipids from packing tightly.
ਕਾਰਡ 161
ਸਵਾਲ
What changes increase the rate of simple diffusion across a membrane?
ਜਵਾਬ
A steeper gradient, larger surface area, higher temperature, shorter distance, and greater membrane permeability increase the rate.
ਕਾਰਡ 162
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a mitochondrion?
ਜਵਾਬ
A double-membrane organelle where most aerobic ATP production occurs.
ਕਾਰਡ 163
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a chloroplast?
ਜਵਾਬ
A double-membrane organelle where photosynthesis occurs in plants and algae.
ਕਾਰਡ 164
ਸਵਾਲ
What is rough endoplasmic reticulum?
ਜਵਾਬ
A membrane network bearing ribosomes that synthesizes and begins processing many secreted and membrane proteins.
ਕਾਰਡ 165
ਸਵਾਲ
What is smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
ਜਵਾਬ
A membrane network involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification, and calcium storage.
ਕਾਰਡ 166
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the main organelle of aerobic ATP production?
ਜਵਾਬ
a mitochondrion
ਕਾਰਡ 167
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the photosynthetic organelle of plants and algae?
ਜਵਾਬ
a chloroplast
ਕਾਰਡ 168
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the ribosome-studded membrane network?
ਜਵਾਬ
rough endoplasmic reticulum
ਕਾਰਡ 169
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the membrane network that lacks ribosomes and synthesizes lipids?
ਜਵਾਬ
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
ਕਾਰਡ 170
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the Golgi apparatus?
ਜਵਾਬ
Stacked membranes that modify, sort, and package proteins and lipids into vesicles.
ਕਾਰਡ 171
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a lysosome?
ਜਵਾਬ
An acidic enzyme-containing organelle that digests macromolecules and worn cellular components.
ਕਾਰਡ 172
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a vesicle?
ਜਵਾਬ
A small membrane-bound compartment used for transport, storage, or chemical reactions.
ਕਾਰਡ 173
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the central vacuole?
ਜਵਾਬ
A large plant-cell compartment that stores solutes and helps maintain turgor pressure.
ਕਾਰਡ 174
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the organelle that modifies and sorts cellular cargo?
ਜਵਾਬ
the Golgi apparatus
ਕਾਰਡ 175
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the acidic digestive organelle?
ਜਵਾਬ
a lysosome
ਕਾਰਡ 176
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a small membrane-bound transport compartment?
ਜਵਾਬ
a vesicle
ਕਾਰਡ 177
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the large plant compartment that supports turgor?
ਜਵਾਬ
the central vacuole
ਕਾਰਡ 178
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can compartmentalization increase metabolic efficiency?
ਜਵਾਬ
It concentrates enzymes and substrates, maintains suitable local conditions, and separates incompatible reactions.
ਕਾਰਡ 179
ਸਵਾਲ
How do mitochondrial cristae support ATP production?
ਜਵਾਬ
They increase inner-membrane area for electron transport chains and ATP synthase.
ਕਾਰਡ 180
ਸਵਾਲ
Why are chloroplast thylakoids arranged as extensive membranes?
ਜਵਾਬ
They provide a large surface for light-absorbing complexes, electron transport chains, and ATP synthase.
ਕਾਰਡ 181
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the main function of the nucleolus?
ਜਵਾਬ
It produces rRNA and assembles ribosomal subunits.
ਕਾਰਡ 182
ਸਵਾਲ
Trace a secreted protein from synthesis to release.
ਜਵਾਬ
Ribosome on rough ER → ER lumen → transport vesicle → Golgi apparatus → secretory vesicle → plasma membrane → exocytosis.
ਕਾਰਡ 183
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does a lysosome maintain an acidic interior?
ਜਵਾਬ
Its hydrolytic enzymes work best at low pH, and acidity helps confine their activity from the cytosol.
ਕਾਰਡ 184
ਸਵਾਲ
How do the nucleus, ribosomes, ER, and Golgi cooperate in protein production?
ਜਵਾਬ
DNA instructions are transcribed in the nucleus; ribosomes translate them; ER folds or modifies many products; Golgi further modifies and sorts them.
ਕਾਰਡ 185
ਸਵਾਲ
How are transport vesicles directed to the correct target membrane?
ਜਵਾਬ
Specific recognition proteins on vesicles and target membranes interact, allowing selective docking and fusion.
ਕਾਰਡ 186
ਸਵਾਲ
What is cell differentiation?
ਜਵਾਬ
The process by which a cell develops specialized structure and function.
ਕਾਰਡ 187
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a stem cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
An unspecialized cell able to self-renew and produce differentiated cells.
ਕਾਰਡ 188
ਸਵਾਲ
What is gene expression?
ਜਵਾਬ
Use of genetic information to produce a functional RNA or protein product.
ਕਾਰਡ 189
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a tissue?
ਜਵਾਬ
A coordinated group of similar or related cells performing a shared function.
ਕਾਰਡ 190
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes development of specialized cell structure and function?
ਜਵਾਬ
cell differentiation
ਕਾਰਡ 191
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an unspecialized self-renewing cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
a stem cell
ਕਾਰਡ 192
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes production of a functional product from genetic information?
ਜਵਾਬ
gene expression
ਕਾਰਡ 193
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a group of coordinated cells with a shared function?
ਜਵਾਬ
a tissue
ਕਾਰਡ 194
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an organ?
ਜਵਾਬ
A structure made of multiple tissues working together for particular functions.
ਕਾਰਡ 195
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the organ-system level of biological organization?
ਜਵਾਬ
A group of organs that coordinate to perform major functions for an organism.
ਕਾਰਡ 196
ਸਵਾਲ
What is surface-area-to-volume ratio?
ਜਵਾਬ
The amount of surface area available relative to the volume it must serve.
ਕਾਰਡ 197
ਸਵਾਲ
How can two specialized cells have the same genome but different structures?
ਜਵਾਬ
They express different sets and amounts of genes, producing different proteins and cellular features.
ਕਾਰਡ 198
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a structure composed of multiple tissue types?
ਜਵਾਬ
an organ
ਕਾਰਡ 199
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the level of biological organization formed by coordinated organs?
ਜਵਾਬ
an organ system
ਕਾਰਡ 200
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes surface area available per unit volume?
ਜਵਾਬ
surface-area-to-volume ratio
ਕਾਰਡ 201
ਸਵਾਲ
How is a mammalian red blood cell specialized for oxygen transport?
ਜਵਾਬ
Its biconcave shape increases exchange area, it is flexible, and loss of its nucleus leaves more space for hemoglobin.
ਕਾਰਡ 202
ਸਵਾਲ
How is a sperm cell specialized for fertilization?
ਜਵਾਬ
It has a flagellum for movement, many mitochondria for ATP, a haploid nucleus, and an acrosome containing enzymes.
ਕਾਰਡ 203
ਸਵਾਲ
How is a neuron specialized for rapid communication?
ਜਵਾਬ
Long processes carry signals over distance, branching dendrites receive inputs, and synaptic terminals transmit signals to other cells.
ਕਾਰਡ 204
ਸਵਾਲ
How is a root hair cell specialized for mineral and water uptake?
ਜਵਾਬ
Its long projection increases surface area, its thin wall shortens the pathway, and membrane transport proteins take up ions.
ਕਾਰਡ 205
ਸਵਾਲ
How is a palisade mesophyll cell specialized for photosynthesis?
ਜਵਾਬ
It contains many chloroplasts and is positioned near the upper leaf surface where light is strongest.
ਕਾਰਡ 206
ਸਵਾਲ
How do ciliated epithelial cells help protect airways?
ਜਵਾਬ
Their cilia move mucus containing trapped particles and microbes toward the throat.
ਕਾਰਡ 207
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can extreme specialization reduce a cell's independence?
ਜਵਾਬ
Resources and structures are committed to a narrow role, so the cell depends on other cells for functions it no longer performs well.
ਕਾਰਡ 208
ਸਵਾਲ
What is water potential?
ਜਵਾਬ
The potential energy of water per unit volume relative to pure water, used to predict the direction of water movement.
ਕਾਰਡ 209
ਸਵਾਲ
What is solute potential?
ਜਵਾਬ
The negative contribution of dissolved solutes to water potential.
ਕਾਰਡ 210
ਸਵਾਲ
What is pressure potential?
ਜਵਾਬ
The contribution of physical pressure to water potential.
ਕਾਰਡ 211
ਸਵਾਲ
What is turgor pressure?
ਜਵਾਬ
Outward pressure of a plant-cell interior against its cell wall after water uptake.
ਕਾਰਡ 212
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the tendency of water to move relative to pure water?
ਜਵਾਬ
water potential
ਕਾਰਡ 213
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the water-potential component lowered by dissolved solutes?
ਜਵਾਬ
solute potential
ਕਾਰਡ 214
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the water-potential component caused by physical pressure?
ਜਵਾਬ
pressure potential
ਕਾਰਡ 215
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes pressure of plant-cell contents against the wall?
ਜਵਾਬ
turgor pressure
ਕਾਰਡ 216
ਸਵਾਲ
What is plasmolysis?
ਜਵਾਬ
Separation of the plasma membrane from the cell wall after a plant cell loses water.
ਕਾਰਡ 217
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a flaccid plant cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
A plant cell with insufficient turgor pressure to be firm.
ਕਾਰਡ 218
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an isotonic condition?
ਜਵਾਬ
A condition in which two solutions have equal effective water potential and no net water movement occurs.
ਕਾਰਡ 219
ਸਵਾਲ
In which direction does water move across a permeable membrane?
ਜਵਾਬ
From higher water potential to lower water potential.
ਕਾਰਡ 220
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes membrane separation from the plant cell wall after water loss?
ਜਵਾਬ
plasmolysis
ਕਾਰਡ 221
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a plant cell lacking firm turgor?
ਜਵਾਬ
a flaccid plant cell
ਕਾਰਡ 222
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes equal effective water potential across a membrane?
ਜਵਾਬ
an isotonic condition
ਕਾਰਡ 223
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the water potential of pure water at standard pressure?
ਜਵਾਬ
Zero; adding solute makes water potential more negative.
ਕਾਰਡ 224
ਸਵਾਲ
How are water potential, solute potential, and pressure potential related?
ਜਵਾਬ
Water potential equals solute potential plus pressure potential: Ψ = Ψs + Ψp.
ਕਾਰਡ 225
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does a plant cell usually become turgid rather than burst in a hypotonic solution?
ਜਵਾਬ
Water entry raises pressure potential, while the rigid cell wall resists further expansion.
ਕਾਰਡ 226
ਸਵਾਲ
What happens to a plant cell placed in a solution with much lower water potential?
ਜਵਾਬ
Water leaves the cell, turgor falls, and severe loss can cause plasmolysis.
ਕਾਰਡ 227
ਸਵਾਲ
Can two solutions have different solute concentrations but equal water potential?
ਜਵਾਬ
Yes. A difference in pressure potential can offset a difference in solute potential.
ਕਾਰਡ 228
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an enzyme?
ਜਵਾਬ
A biological catalyst that increases reaction rate without being consumed.
ਕਾਰਡ 229
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an active site?
ਜਵਾਬ
The region of an enzyme where substrate binds and catalysis occurs.
ਕਾਰਡ 230
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a substrate?
ਜਵਾਬ
A reactant molecule on which an enzyme acts.
ਕਾਰਡ 231
ਸਵਾਲ
What is activation energy?
ਜਵਾਬ
The minimum energy input needed for a reaction to begin.
ਕਾਰਡ 232
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a biological catalyst?
ਜਵਾਬ
an enzyme
ਕਾਰਡ 233
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the substrate-binding catalytic region of an enzyme?
ਜਵਾਬ
an active site
ਕਾਰਡ 234
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a reactant bound and changed by an enzyme?
ਜਵਾਬ
a substrate
ਕਾਰਡ 235
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the energy barrier that must be overcome for a reaction?
ਜਵਾਬ
activation energy
ਕਾਰਡ 236
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the induced-fit model?
ਜਵਾਬ
The model in which substrate binding changes active-site shape to improve catalytic interactions.
ਕਾਰਡ 237
ਸਵਾਲ
What is enzyme denaturation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Loss of the active three-dimensional shape of an enzyme, usually causing loss of activity.
ਕਾਰਡ 238
ਸਵਾਲ
What is competitive inhibition?
ਜਵਾਬ
Inhibition caused by a molecule competing with substrate for the active site.
ਕਾਰਡ 239
ਸਵਾਲ
What is noncompetitive inhibition?
ਜਵਾਬ
Inhibition caused by binding away from the active site and reducing catalytic function.
ਕਾਰਡ 240
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the model where substrate binding reshapes the active site?
ਜਵਾਬ
the induced-fit model
ਕਾਰਡ 241
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes loss of an enzyme's functional shape?
ਜਵਾਬ
enzyme denaturation
ਕਾਰਡ 242
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes inhibition by active-site competition?
ਜਵਾਬ
competitive inhibition
ਕਾਰਡ 243
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes inhibition by binding outside the active site?
ਜਵਾਬ
noncompetitive inhibition
ਕਾਰਡ 244
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an enzyme optimum?
ਜਵਾਬ
The condition, such as temperature or pH, at which an enzyme's activity is highest.
ਕਾਰਡ 245
ਸਵਾਲ
What is feedback inhibition?
ਜਵਾਬ
Control in which a pathway product inhibits an enzyme acting earlier in the pathway.
ਕਾਰਡ 246
ਸਵਾਲ
How does an enzyme increase reaction rate?
ਜਵਾਬ
It stabilizes the transition state and provides a pathway with lower activation energy.
ਕਾਰਡ 247
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does enzyme activity often rise and then fall as temperature increases?
ਜਵਾਬ
Molecular collisions initially increase, but excessive heat disrupts enzyme shape and denatures the active site.
ਕਾਰਡ 248
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the condition producing maximum enzyme activity?
ਜਵਾਬ
an enzyme optimum
ਕਾਰਡ 249
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes pathway control by inhibition from an end product?
ਜਵਾਬ
feedback inhibition
ਕਾਰਡ 250
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does each enzyme have a characteristic pH range?
ਜਵਾਬ
pH changes the ionization of amino-acid side chains, affecting active-site shape and chemical interactions.
ਕਾਰਡ 251
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does increasing substrate concentration eventually stop increasing enzyme rate?
ਜਵਾਬ
At saturation, nearly all active sites are occupied and enzyme concentration limits the maximum rate.
ਕਾਰਡ 252
ਸਵਾਲ
How does increasing enzyme concentration affect rate when substrate is abundant?
ਜਵਾਬ
More active sites are available, so the initial rate increases roughly in proportion to enzyme concentration.
ਕਾਰਡ 253
ਸਵਾਲ
What gives an enzyme substrate specificity?
ਜਵਾਬ
The active site's shape, charge, polarity, and chemical groups complement particular substrates and transition states.
ਕਾਰਡ 254
ਸਵਾਲ
What is one practical advantage of immobilizing an enzyme?
ਜਵਾਬ
The enzyme can be separated from products and reused while conditions around it are controlled.
ਕਾਰਡ 255
ਸਵਾਲ
Does an enzyme change a reaction's equilibrium position?
ਜਵਾਬ
No. It speeds forward and reverse reactions but does not change the equilibrium constant or final equilibrium position.
ਕਾਰਡ 256
ਸਵਾਲ
How can high substrate concentration reduce competitive inhibition?
ਜਵਾਬ
More substrate molecules increase the chance that substrate rather than inhibitor occupies the active site.
ਕਾਰਡ 257
ਸਵਾਲ
Why are metabolic reactions commonly organized into pathways?
ਜਵਾਬ
A sequence of enzyme-controlled steps allows energy changes and intermediates to be controlled and coupled.
ਕਾਰਡ 258
ਸਵਾਲ
What is ATP?
ਜਵਾਬ
A nucleotide that transfers usable energy through coupling of its hydrolysis to cellular processes.
ਕਾਰਡ 259
ਸਵਾਲ
What is cellular respiration?
ਜਵਾਬ
Controlled release of energy from organic molecules to produce ATP.
ਕਾਰਡ 260
ਸਵਾਲ
What is glycolysis?
ਜਵਾਬ
A cytosolic pathway that splits glucose into two pyruvate molecules and yields a small amount of ATP and reduced electron carriers.
ਕਾਰਡ 261
ਸਵਾਲ
What is pyruvate?
ਜਵਾਬ
The three-carbon product of glycolysis that can enter aerobic or anaerobic pathways.
ਕਾਰਡ 262
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the cell's immediate phosphoryl-group energy carrier?
ਜਵਾਬ
ATP
ਕਾਰਡ 263
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes controlled ATP-producing breakdown of organic molecules?
ਜਵਾਬ
cellular respiration
ਕਾਰਡ 264
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the cytosolic splitting of glucose into pyruvate?
ਜਵਾਬ
glycolysis
ਕਾਰਡ 265
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the three-carbon product of glycolysis?
ਜਵਾਬ
pyruvate
ਕਾਰਡ 266
ਸਵਾਲ
What is aerobic respiration?
ਜਵਾਬ
Respiration that uses oxygen as the final electron acceptor and produces much more ATP than fermentation.
ਕਾਰਡ 267
ਸਵਾਲ
What is anaerobic metabolism?
ਜਵਾਬ
ATP-producing metabolism that proceeds without oxygen.
ਕਾਰਡ 268
ਸਵਾਲ
What is fermentation?
ਜਵਾਬ
An anaerobic pathway that regenerates oxidized electron carriers so glycolysis can continue.
ਕਾਰਡ 269
ਸਵਾਲ
What is oxidation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Loss of electrons, often accompanied in biology by loss of hydrogen or gain of oxygen.
ਕਾਰਡ 270
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes respiration using oxygen as final electron acceptor?
ਜਵਾਬ
aerobic respiration
ਕਾਰਡ 271
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes ATP-producing metabolism without oxygen?
ਜਵਾਬ
anaerobic metabolism
ਕਾਰਡ 272
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes anaerobic regeneration of electron carriers after glycolysis?
ਜਵਾਬ
fermentation
ਕਾਰਡ 273
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes loss of electrons?
ਜਵਾਬ
oxidation
ਕਾਰਡ 274
ਸਵਾਲ
What is reduction?
ਜਵਾਬ
Gain of electrons, often accompanied in biology by gain of hydrogen or loss of oxygen.
ਕਾਰਡ 275
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a reduced electron carrier?
ਜਵਾਬ
A molecule such as NADH that carries high-energy electrons and hydrogen from one reaction to another.
ਕਾਰਡ 276
ਸਵਾਲ
What is chemiosmosis?
ਜਵਾਬ
ATP production driven by ions moving down an electrochemical gradient through ATP synthase.
ਕਾਰਡ 277
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the overall word equation for aerobic respiration of glucose?
ਜਵਾਬ
Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy transferred to ATP and heat.
ਕਾਰਡ 278
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes gain of electrons?
ਜਵਾਬ
reduction
ਕਾਰਡ 279
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a molecule carrying high-energy electrons between reactions?
ਜਵਾਬ
a reduced electron carrier
ਕਾਰਡ 280
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes ATP production powered by an ion gradient?
ਜਵਾਬ
chemiosmosis
ਕਾਰਡ 281
ਸਵਾਲ
Where does glycolysis occur?
ਜਵਾਬ
In the cytosol.
ਕਾਰਡ 282
ਸਵਾਲ
What major stages of aerobic respiration occur in mitochondria?
ਜਵਾਬ
Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle occur in the matrix; electron transport and chemiosmosis occur at the inner membrane.
ਕਾਰਡ 283
ਸਵਾਲ
What is oxygen's direct role in aerobic respiration?
ਜਵਾਬ
It accepts electrons and hydrogen ions at the end of the electron transport chain, forming water.
ਕਾਰਡ 284
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does aerobic respiration yield much more ATP per glucose than fermentation?
ਜਵਾਬ
It transfers electrons through an electron transport chain and uses oxidative phosphorylation, extracting far more of glucose's energy.
ਕਾਰਡ 285
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the purpose of lactate formation in oxygen-limited animal cells?
ਜਵਾਬ
It regenerates NAD⁺ so glycolysis can continue producing a small amount of ATP.
ਕਾਰਡ 286
ਸਵਾਲ
What products are formed during alcoholic fermentation in yeast?
ਜਵਾਬ
Ethanol and carbon dioxide, while NAD⁺ is regenerated.
ਕਾਰਡ 287
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is some energy released by respiration transferred as heat rather than captured in ATP?
ਜਵਾਬ
Energy conversions are not fully efficient, so part of the chemical energy becomes disordered molecular motion.
ਕਾਰਡ 288
ਸਵਾਲ
What is substrate-level phosphorylation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Direct transfer of a phosphate group from a metabolic intermediate to ADP to form ATP.
ਕਾਰਡ 289
ਸਵਾਲ
How does electron transport lead to ATP synthesis in mitochondria?
ਜਵਾਬ
Electron energy pumps protons across the inner membrane; proton flow back through ATP synthase drives ATP formation.
ਕਾਰਡ 290
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can intense exercise increase lactate production?
ਜਵਾਬ
ATP demand can exceed oxygen delivery and aerobic capacity, so cells regenerate NAD⁺ through lactate formation to sustain glycolysis.
ਕਾਰਡ 291
ਸਵਾਲ
What is photosynthesis?
ਜਵਾਬ
Conversion of light energy into chemical energy used to synthesize organic molecules from carbon dioxide.
ਕਾਰਡ 292
ਸਵਾਲ
What is chlorophyll?
ਜਵਾਬ
A green pigment that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.
ਕਾਰਡ 293
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an absorption spectrum?
ਜਵਾਬ
A graph showing how strongly a pigment absorbs different wavelengths of light.
ਕਾਰਡ 294
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an action spectrum?
ਜਵਾਬ
A graph showing the rate or effectiveness of photosynthesis at different wavelengths.
ਕਾਰਡ 295
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes light-driven synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide?
ਜਵਾਬ
photosynthesis
ਕਾਰਡ 296
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the principal green photosynthetic pigment?
ਜਵਾਬ
chlorophyll
ਕਾਰਡ 297
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a graph of pigment absorption versus wavelength?
ਜਵਾਬ
an absorption spectrum
ਕਾਰਡ 298
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a graph of photosynthetic effectiveness versus wavelength?
ਜਵਾਬ
an action spectrum
ਕਾਰਡ 299
ਸਵਾਲ
What is photolysis of water?
ਜਵਾਬ
Light-driven splitting of water that supplies electrons and hydrogen ions and releases oxygen.
ਕਾਰਡ 300
ਸਵਾਲ
What are light-dependent reactions?
ਜਵਾਬ
Photosynthetic reactions that use light to generate ATP and reduced electron carriers while releasing oxygen.
ਕਾਰਡ 301
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the Calvin cycle?
ਜਵਾਬ
A set of chloroplast reactions that uses ATP and reduced electron carriers to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrate precursors.
ਕਾਰਡ 302
ਸਵਾਲ
What is carbon fixation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Incorporation of inorganic carbon dioxide into an organic molecule.
ਕਾਰਡ 303
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes light-driven splitting of water?
ਜਵਾਬ
photolysis of water
ਕਾਰਡ 304
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes photosynthetic reactions that directly capture light energy?
ਜਵਾਬ
light-dependent reactions
ਕਾਰਡ 305
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the carbon-reduction cycle of photosynthesis?
ਜਵਾਬ
the Calvin cycle
ਕਾਰਡ 306
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes incorporation of carbon dioxide into organic matter?
ਜਵਾਬ
carbon fixation
ਕਾਰਡ 307
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the role of a stoma in photosynthesis?
ਜਵਾਬ
A pore in the leaf epidermis that regulates carbon-dioxide entry as well as water loss.
ਕਾਰਡ 308
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a limiting factor of photosynthesis?
ਜਵਾਬ
The environmental factor whose availability currently restricts the photosynthetic rate.
ਕਾਰਡ 309
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the light compensation point?
ਜਵਾਬ
The light intensity at which photosynthetic carbon uptake equals respiratory carbon release.
ਕਾਰਡ 310
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the overall word equation for oxygenic photosynthesis?
ਜਵਾਬ
Carbon dioxide + water → carbohydrate + oxygen, using light energy.
ਕਾਰਡ 311
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the regulated leaf pore controlling carbon-dioxide entry for photosynthesis?
ਜਵਾਬ
a stoma
ਕਾਰਡ 312
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the factor currently restricting photosynthetic rate?
ਜਵਾਬ
a limiting factor
ਕਾਰਡ 313
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the light level where photosynthesis and respiration balance?
ਜਵਾਬ
the light compensation point
ਕਾਰਡ 314
ਸਵਾਲ
Where do the main stages of photosynthesis occur in a chloroplast?
ਜਵਾਬ
Light-dependent reactions occur in thylakoid membranes; carbon-fixation reactions occur in the stroma.
ਕਾਰਡ 315
ਸਵਾਲ
What energy conversion occurs during photosynthesis?
ਜਵਾਬ
Light energy is converted into chemical energy stored first in ATP and reduced carriers and ultimately in organic molecules.
ਕਾਰਡ 316
ਸਵਾਲ
From which reactant does the oxygen released by photosynthesis originate?
ਜਵਾਬ
Water.
ਕਾਰਡ 317
ਸਵਾਲ
What role does RuBisCO play in photosynthesis?
ਜਵਾਬ
It catalyzes fixation of carbon dioxide by adding it to an organic acceptor molecule.
ਕਾਰਡ 318
ਸਵਾਲ
What tradeoff is controlled when stomata open?
ਜਵਾਬ
Opening permits carbon dioxide entry but increases water loss by transpiration.
ਕਾਰਡ 319
ਸਵਾਲ
Name three leaf features that support photosynthesis.
ਜਵਾਬ
A broad surface captures light, a thin structure shortens diffusion paths, and veins supply water and remove sugars; chloroplast-rich cells and stomata also help.
ਕਾਰਡ 320
ਸਵਾਲ
What can a plant do with carbohydrate made by photosynthesis?
ਜਵਾਬ
Use it in respiration, convert it to storage or structural carbohydrates, or use its carbon to make lipids, amino acids, and other molecules.
ਕਾਰਡ 321
ਸਵਾਲ
How are products of the light-dependent reactions used in carbon fixation?
ਜਵਾਬ
ATP supplies energy and NADPH supplies reducing power for conversion of fixed carbon into carbohydrate precursors.
ਕਾਰਡ 322
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does increasing light intensity eventually stop increasing photosynthetic rate?
ਜਵਾਬ
Another factor, such as carbon dioxide supply, temperature, or biochemical capacity, becomes limiting.
ਕਾਰਡ 323
ਸਵਾਲ
How can increasing carbon dioxide concentration affect photosynthetic rate?
ਜਵਾਬ
It can increase the rate until another factor becomes limiting.
ਕਾਰਡ 324
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does photosynthetic rate usually have a temperature optimum?
ਜਵਾਬ
Enzyme-controlled reactions accelerate with temperature up to an optimum, then decline as enzymes and membranes lose effective function.
ਕਾਰਡ 325
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does an action spectrum broadly resemble the combined absorption spectra of photosynthetic pigments?
ਜਵਾਬ
Wavelengths absorbed by the pigments supply more energy for photosynthesis than poorly absorbed wavelengths.
ਕਾਰਡ 326
ਸਵਾਲ
What is semiconservative replication?
ਜਵਾਬ
DNA replication in which each daughter molecule contains one parental strand and one newly synthesized strand.
ਕਾਰਡ 327
ਸਵਾਲ
What is DNA helicase?
ਜਵਾਬ
An enzyme that unwinds the double helix and separates the strands by disrupting base pairing.
ਕਾਰਡ 328
ਸਵਾਲ
What is DNA polymerase?
ਜਵਾਬ
An enzyme that adds nucleotides to a growing DNA strand using a template.
ਕਾਰਡ 329
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a primer?
ਜਵਾਬ
A short nucleic-acid segment providing a free 3′ end from which DNA polymerase can extend.
ਕਾਰਡ 330
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes replication producing one old and one new strand per DNA molecule?
ਜਵਾਬ
semiconservative replication
ਕਾਰਡ 331
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the enzyme that separates DNA strands?
ਜਵਾਬ
DNA helicase
ਕਾਰਡ 332
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the enzyme that builds DNA from a template?
ਜਵਾਬ
DNA polymerase
ਕਾਰਡ 333
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the short segment providing a starting 3′ end?
ਜਵਾਬ
a primer
ਕਾਰਡ 334
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the leading strand?
ਜਵਾਬ
The new DNA strand synthesized continuously toward the replication fork.
ਕਾਰਡ 335
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the lagging strand?
ਜਵਾਬ
The new DNA strand synthesized discontinuously away from the replication fork.
ਕਾਰਡ 336
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an Okazaki fragment?
ਜਵਾਬ
A short DNA segment synthesized on the lagging strand.
ਕਾਰਡ 337
ਸਵਾਲ
What is DNA ligase?
ਜਵਾਬ
An enzyme that seals breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone, joining DNA fragments.
ਕਾਰਡ 338
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the continuously synthesized daughter strand?
ਜਵਾਬ
the leading strand
ਕਾਰਡ 339
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the discontinuously synthesized daughter strand?
ਜਵਾਬ
the lagging strand
ਕਾਰਡ 340
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a short newly made segment of lagging-strand DNA?
ਜਵਾਬ
an Okazaki fragment
ਕਾਰਡ 341
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the enzyme that joins DNA fragments by sealing the backbone?
ਜਵਾਬ
DNA ligase
ਕਾਰਡ 342
ਸਵਾਲ
How does complementary base pairing ensure accurate DNA copying?
ਜਵਾਬ
Each template base specifies the nucleotide added opposite it: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G.
ਕਾਰਡ 343
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does DNA polymerase synthesize DNA only 5′ to 3′?
ਜਵਾਬ
It can add a nucleotide only to the free 3′ hydroxyl group of the growing strand.
ਕਾਰਡ 344
ਸਵਾਲ
When in the cell cycle is nuclear DNA replicated?
ਜਵਾਬ
During S phase of interphase, before cell division.
ਕਾਰਡ 345
ਸਵਾਲ
How can a replication error become a permanent mutation?
ਜਵਾਬ
If it escapes proofreading and repair, the altered sequence can be copied in later cell generations.
ਕਾਰਡ 346
ਸਵਾਲ
Why are leading and lagging strands synthesized differently?
ਜਵਾਬ
The templates are antiparallel while DNA polymerase works only 5′ to 3′, forcing one strand to be made discontinuously.
ਕਾਰਡ 347
ਸਵਾਲ
How do proofreading and repair reduce replication errors?
ਜਵਾਬ
Incorrectly paired nucleotides are recognized, removed, and replaced before or after replication continues.
ਕਾਰਡ 348
ਸਵਾਲ
What three repeating steps amplify DNA in PCR?
ਜਵਾਬ
Strand separation by heating, primer annealing during cooling, and DNA extension by a heat-stable polymerase.
ਕਾਰਡ 349
ਸਵਾਲ
What determines which DNA region PCR amplifies?
ਜਵਾਬ
The sequences and positions of the two primers flanking the target region.
ਕਾਰਡ 350
ਸਵਾਲ
What is transcription?
ਜਵਾਬ
Synthesis of RNA from a DNA template.
ਕਾਰਡ 351
ਸਵਾਲ
What is RNA polymerase?
ਜਵਾਬ
The enzyme that synthesizes RNA complementary to a DNA template strand.
ਕਾਰਡ 352
ਸਵਾਲ
What is messenger RNA?
ਜਵਾਬ
RNA carrying a coding sequence from DNA to ribosomes.
ਕਾਰਡ 353
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a codon?
ਜਵਾਬ
A three-base sequence in mRNA that specifies an amino acid or a translation signal.
ਕਾਰਡ 354
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes RNA synthesis from DNA?
ਜਵਾਬ
transcription
ਕਾਰਡ 355
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the enzyme that builds RNA from a DNA template?
ਜਵਾਬ
RNA polymerase
ਕਾਰਡ 356
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes RNA that carries coding information to ribosomes?
ਜਵਾਬ
messenger RNA
ਕਾਰਡ 357
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a three-base mRNA unit?
ਜਵਾਬ
a codon
ਕਾਰਡ 358
ਸਵਾਲ
What is translation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Synthesis of a polypeptide using the codon sequence of mRNA.
ਕਾਰਡ 359
ਸਵਾਲ
What does a ribosome do during translation?
ਜਵਾਬ
It reads mRNA and catalyzes polypeptide synthesis using its rRNA-protein machinery.
ਕਾਰਡ 360
ਸਵਾਲ
What is transfer RNA?
ਜਵਾਬ
RNA that carries a specific amino acid and pairs its anticodon with an mRNA codon.
ਕਾਰਡ 361
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an anticodon?
ਜਵਾਬ
A three-base tRNA sequence complementary to an mRNA codon.
ਕਾਰਡ 362
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes polypeptide synthesis from an mRNA sequence?
ਜਵਾਬ
translation
ਕਾਰਡ 363
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the translation complex that reads mRNA and builds a polypeptide?
ਜਵਾਬ
a ribosome
ਕਾਰਡ 364
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the adaptor RNA carrying an amino acid?
ਜਵਾਬ
transfer RNA
ਕਾਰਡ 365
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the tRNA triplet that pairs with a codon?
ਜਵਾਬ
an anticodon
ਕਾਰਡ 366
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the genetic code?
ਜਵਾਬ
The set of rules relating mRNA codons to amino acids and translation signals.
ਕਾਰਡ 367
ਸਵਾਲ
What are start and stop codons?
ਜਵਾਬ
mRNA signals that establish the reading frame or terminate translation.
ਕਾਰਡ 368
ਸਵਾਲ
Where do transcription and translation occur in a eukaryotic cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
Transcription occurs in the nucleus; translation occurs on ribosomes in the cytoplasm or on rough ER.
ਕਾਰਡ 369
ਸਵਾਲ
How is an mRNA sequence related to its DNA template strand?
ਜਵਾਬ
It is complementary and antiparallel, with uracil in RNA opposite adenine in DNA.
ਕਾਰਡ 370
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the codon-to-amino-acid rule set?
ਜਵਾਬ
the genetic code
ਕਾਰਡ 371
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes codons that begin or end translation?
ਜਵਾਬ
start and stop codons
ਕਾਰਡ 372
ਸਵਾਲ
What reaction does the ribosome catalyze as a polypeptide grows?
ਜਵਾਬ
Formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids.
ਕਾਰਡ 373
ਸਵਾਲ
What does it mean that the genetic code is degenerate?
ਜਵਾਬ
Most amino acids are specified by more than one codon.
ਕਾਰਡ 374
ਸਵਾਲ
How can one mRNA produce many polypeptides quickly?
ਜਵਾਬ
Multiple ribosomes can translate the same mRNA simultaneously as a polyribosome.
ਕਾਰਡ 375
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is translation not the final step in producing many functional proteins?
ਜਵਾਬ
The polypeptide must fold and may undergo cleavage, chemical modification, or assembly with other subunits.
ਕਾਰਡ 376
ਸਵਾਲ
How does mRNA compare with the DNA coding strand?
ਜਵਾਬ
It has the same base sequence except that RNA contains uracil where DNA contains thymine.
ਕਾਰਡ 377
ਸਵਾਲ
What happens during eukaryotic RNA splicing?
ਜਵਾਬ
Introns are removed and exons are joined to form mature mRNA.
ਕਾਰਡ 378
ਸਵਾਲ
Why must codons be read in the correct reading frame?
ਜਵਾਬ
Changing the starting position changes every downstream triplet and therefore the amino-acid sequence.
ਕਾਰਡ 379
ਸਵਾਲ
How is the correct amino acid matched to each mRNA codon?
ਜਵਾਬ
Each tRNA is charged with a particular amino acid, and its anticodon pairs with the complementary codon.
ਕਾਰਡ 380
ਸਵਾਲ
How can a base substitution affect a protein?
ਜਵਾਬ
It may be silent, change one amino acid, create a stop codon, or sometimes alter RNA processing.
ਕਾਰਡ 381
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a mutation?
ਜਵਾਬ
A change in a DNA sequence or chromosome structure that can be passed to daughter cells.
ਕਾਰਡ 382
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a base substitution?
ਜਵਾਬ
Replacement of one nucleotide pair by another.
ਕਾਰਡ 383
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an insertion mutation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Addition of one or more nucleotides to a DNA sequence.
ਕਾਰਡ 384
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a deletion mutation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Loss of one or more nucleotides from a DNA sequence.
ਕਾਰਡ 385
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a lasting DNA-sequence or chromosome change?
ਜਵਾਬ
a mutation
ਕਾਰਡ 386
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes replacement of one DNA base pair?
ਜਵਾਬ
a base substitution
ਕਾਰਡ 387
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes addition of nucleotides to DNA?
ਜਵਾਬ
an insertion mutation
ਕਾਰਡ 388
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes loss of nucleotides from DNA?
ਜਵਾਬ
a deletion mutation
ਕਾਰਡ 389
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a frameshift mutation?
ਜਵਾਬ
A coding-sequence insertion or deletion not divisible by three that changes downstream codon grouping.
ਕਾਰਡ 390
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a silent mutation?
ਜਵਾਬ
A sequence change that does not alter the encoded amino acid.
ਕਾਰਡ 391
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a missense mutation?
ਜਵਾਬ
A mutation that changes a codon so a different amino acid is incorporated.
ਕਾਰਡ 392
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a nonsense mutation?
ਜਵਾਬ
A mutation that changes an amino-acid codon into a stop codon.
ਕਾਰਡ 393
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a mutation that shifts downstream codon grouping?
ਜਵਾਬ
a frameshift mutation
ਕਾਰਡ 394
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a coding change that leaves the amino acid unchanged?
ਜਵਾਬ
a silent mutation
ਕਾਰਡ 395
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a mutation causing one amino-acid substitution?
ਜਵਾਬ
a missense mutation
ਕਾਰਡ 396
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a mutation creating a premature stop codon?
ਜਵਾਬ
a nonsense mutation
ਕਾਰਡ 397
ਸਵਾਲ
How do germline and somatic mutations differ in inheritance?
ਜਵਾਬ
Germline mutations can enter gametes and be inherited; somatic mutations affect a cell lineage within the individual.
ਕਾਰਡ 398
ਸਵਾਲ
What can cause mutations?
ਜਵਾਬ
Replication errors, spontaneous chemical changes, radiation, and mutagenic chemicals can alter DNA.
ਕਾਰਡ 399
ਸਵਾਲ
How does DNA repair protect genome stability?
ਜਵਾਬ
Repair systems detect damaged or mismatched DNA and restore the correct structure or sequence when possible.
ਕਾਰਡ 400
ਸਵਾਲ
Why are mutations essential to evolution despite often being neutral or harmful?
ਜਵਾਬ
They create new alleles, providing the heritable variation on which selection and drift act.
ਕਾਰਡ 401
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the basic role of guide RNA in CRISPR gene editing?
ਜਵਾਬ
It directs a nuclease to a complementary DNA sequence.
ਕਾਰਡ 402
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can the same type of DNA mutation have effects ranging from none to severe?
ਜਵਾਬ
Effects depend on location, genetic-code redundancy, protein role, cell type, and environmental context.
ਕਾਰਡ 403
ਸਵਾਲ
How can accumulated mutations contribute to cancer?
ਜਵਾਬ
Mutations can activate growth-promoting genes or disable genes that restrain division, repair DNA, or trigger cell death.
ਕਾਰਡ 404
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can repairing a CRISPR-induced DNA break produce different editing outcomes?
ਜਵਾਬ
Different cellular repair pathways may disrupt the target sequence or use a supplied template for a specific change.
ਕਾਰਡ 405
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an off-target effect in gene editing?
ਜਵਾਬ
An unintended DNA change at a site sufficiently similar to the intended target.
ਕਾਰਡ 406
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does heritable human genome editing raise additional ethical concerns?
ਜਵਾਬ
Changes could pass to future generations who cannot consent, with uncertain long-term biological and social effects.
ਕਾਰਡ 407
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the cell cycle?
ਜਵਾਬ
The ordered sequence of cell growth, DNA replication, nuclear division, and cell division.
ਕਾਰਡ 408
ਸਵਾਲ
What is interphase?
ਜਵਾਬ
The period of growth, normal activity, and DNA replication between nuclear divisions.
ਕਾਰਡ 409
ਸਵਾਲ
What is mitosis?
ਜਵਾਬ
Nuclear division that usually produces genetically equivalent daughter nuclei.
ਕਾਰਡ 410
ਸਵਾਲ
What is cytokinesis?
ਜਵਾਬ
Division of the cytoplasm to form separate daughter cells.
ਕਾਰਡ 411
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the ordered sequence from one cell division to the next?
ਜਵਾਬ
the cell cycle
ਕਾਰਡ 412
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the growth and DNA-replication period between divisions?
ਜਵਾਬ
interphase
ਕਾਰਡ 413
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes division producing genetically equivalent nuclei?
ਜਵਾਬ
mitosis
ਕਾਰਡ 414
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes physical division of the cytoplasm?
ਜਵਾਬ
cytokinesis
ਕਾਰਡ 415
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a chromosome?
ਜਵਾਬ
One DNA molecule packaged with associated proteins.
ਕਾਰਡ 416
ਸਵਾਲ
What are sister chromatids?
ਜਵਾਬ
The two replicated copies of a chromosome joined before separation.
ਕਾਰਡ 417
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a centromere?
ਜਵਾਬ
The chromosome region that holds sister chromatids together and organizes kinetochore attachment.
ਕਾਰਡ 418
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the mitotic spindle?
ਜਵਾਬ
A microtubule system that attaches to and separates chromosomes during cell division.
ਕਾਰਡ 419
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a protein-packaged DNA molecule?
ਜਵਾਬ
a chromosome
ਕਾਰਡ 420
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes joined replicated copies of one chromosome?
ਜਵਾਬ
sister chromatids
ਕਾਰਡ 421
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the chromosome region joining sister chromatids?
ਜਵਾਬ
a centromere
ਕਾਰਡ 422
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the chromosome-separating microtubule system?
ਜਵਾਬ
the mitotic spindle
ਕਾਰਡ 423
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the basic sequence of mitosis?
ਜਵਾਬ
Chromosomes condense, align at the cell equator, sister chromatids separate to opposite poles, and new nuclei form.
ਕਾਰਡ 424
ਸਵਾਲ
Why must DNA replicate before mitosis?
ਜਵਾਬ
Each chromosome must have two copies so each daughter nucleus can receive a complete genome.
ਕਾਰਡ 425
ਸਵਾਲ
Why are daughter cells from mitosis usually genetically similar?
ਜਵਾਬ
Replicated sister chromatids are separated so each daughter receives one copy of every chromosome.
ਕਾਰਡ 426
ਸਵਾਲ
What are major roles of mitosis in multicellular organisms?
ਜਵਾਬ
Growth, tissue repair, cell replacement, and some forms of asexual reproduction.
ਕਾਰਡ 427
ਸਵਾਲ
How do homologous chromosomes differ from sister chromatids?
ਜਵਾਬ
Homologs carry the same gene loci but may have different alleles; sister chromatids are replicated copies of one chromosome.
ਕਾਰਡ 428
ਸਵਾਲ
What key outcome distinguishes mitosis from meiosis?
ਜਵਾਬ
Mitosis usually preserves chromosome number and similarity; meiosis halves chromosome number and generates genetically varied haploid cells.
ਕਾਰਡ 429
ਸਵਾਲ
How does cytokinesis commonly occur in animal cells?
ਜਵਾਬ
A contractile ring tightens the plasma membrane into a cleavage furrow.
ਕਾਰਡ 430
ਸਵਾਲ
How does cytokinesis commonly occur in plant cells?
ਜਵਾਬ
Vesicles fuse at the center to form a cell plate that develops into new membranes and a cell wall.
ਕਾਰਡ 431
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the purpose of cell-cycle checkpoints?
ਜਵਾਬ
They delay progression when conditions are unsuitable or DNA and chromosome attachment are defective.
ਕਾਰਡ 432
ਸਵਾਲ
How is loss of cell-cycle control related to cancer?
ਜਵਾਬ
Cells can divide despite damage or growth restraints, producing an expanding abnormal clone.
ਕਾਰਡ 433
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a gene?
ਜਵਾਬ
A DNA sequence that contributes to a functional product and influences a characteristic or cellular process.
ਕਾਰਡ 434
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an allele?
ਜਵਾਬ
One of the alternative DNA-sequence forms at a gene locus.
ਕਾਰਡ 435
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a gene locus?
ਜਵਾਬ
The physical position of a gene on a chromosome.
ਕਾਰਡ 436
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a genotype?
ਜਵਾਬ
The allele combination of an organism at one or more loci.
ਕਾਰਡ 437
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a functional DNA sequence?
ਜਵਾਬ
a gene
ਕਾਰਡ 438
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an alternative form of a gene?
ਜਵਾਬ
an allele
ਕਾਰਡ 439
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a gene's chromosome position?
ਜਵਾਬ
a gene locus
ਕਾਰਡ 440
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an organism's allele combination?
ਜਵਾਬ
a genotype
ਕਾਰਡ 441
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a phenotype?
ਜਵਾਬ
An observable or measurable trait produced by genotype and environment.
ਕਾਰਡ 442
ਸਵਾਲ
What is homozygous?
ਜਵਾਬ
Having two identical alleles at a diploid locus.
ਕਾਰਡ 443
ਸਵਾਲ
What is heterozygous?
ਜਵਾਬ
Having two different alleles at a diploid locus.
ਕਾਰਡ 444
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a dominant allele?
ਜਵਾਬ
An allele expressed in the phenotype of a heterozygote under a specified inheritance model.
ਕਾਰਡ 445
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an observable trait resulting from genes and environment?
ਜਵਾਬ
a phenotype
ਕਾਰਡ 446
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes having two identical alleles at a locus?
ਜਵਾਬ
homozygous
ਕਾਰਡ 447
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes having two different alleles at a locus?
ਜਵਾਬ
heterozygous
ਕਾਰਡ 448
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an allele expressed in a heterozygote?
ਜਵਾਬ
a dominant allele
ਕਾਰਡ 449
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a recessive allele?
ਜਵਾਬ
An allele whose phenotype is masked by a dominant allele in a heterozygote.
ਕਾਰਡ 450
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a genetic carrier?
ਜਵਾਬ
An unaffected heterozygote who can transmit a recessive disease allele.
ਕਾਰਡ 451
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a test cross?
ਜਵਾਬ
A cross with a homozygous recessive individual used to infer an unknown dominant phenotype's genotype.
ਕਾਰਡ 452
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a pedigree?
ਜਵਾਬ
A diagram showing biological relationships and occurrence of a trait across generations.
ਕਾਰਡ 453
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an allele masked in a heterozygote?
ਜਵਾਬ
a recessive allele
ਕਾਰਡ 454
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an unaffected heterozygote carrying a recessive disease allele?
ਜਵਾਬ
a genetic carrier
ਕਾਰਡ 455
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a cross used to reveal an unknown dominant genotype?
ਜਵਾਬ
a test cross
ਕਾਰਡ 456
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a family diagram tracking a trait across generations?
ਜਵਾਬ
a pedigree
ਕਾਰਡ 457
ਸਵਾਲ
What does allele segregation mean during gamete formation?
ਜਵਾਬ
The two alleles at a diploid locus separate so each gamete receives one.
ਕਾਰਡ 458
ਸਵਾਲ
What does a Punnett square predict?
ਜਵਾਬ
Expected genotype and phenotype probabilities from specified parental gametes, not guaranteed family outcomes.
ਕਾਰਡ 459
ਸਵਾਲ
What phenotypic ratio is expected from Aa × Aa with complete dominance?
ਜਵਾਬ
Approximately 3 dominant phenotype : 1 recessive phenotype.
ਕਾਰਡ 460
ਸਵਾਲ
What genotypic ratio is expected from Aa × Aa?
ਜਵਾਬ
1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa.
ਕਾਰਡ 461
ਸਵਾਲ
What happens in codominance?
ਜਵਾਬ
Both alleles contribute distinctly to the heterozygous phenotype.
ਕਾਰਡ 462
ਸਵਾਲ
What happens in incomplete dominance?
ਜਵਾਬ
The heterozygote has a phenotype intermediate between the two homozygotes.
ਕਾਰਡ 463
ਸਵਾਲ
How can environment affect phenotype without changing genotype?
ਜਵਾਬ
Conditions alter development, physiology, or gene expression, changing the observed trait.
ਕਾਰਡ 464
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the ultimate source of new alleles?
ਜਵਾਬ
Mutation.
ਕਾਰਡ 465
ਸਵਾਲ
Why are X-linked recessive traits more common in XY individuals?
ਜਵਾਬ
They have only one X chromosome, so one recessive allele on it can determine the phenotype.
ਕਾਰਡ 466
ਸਵਾਲ
When is the product rule used in genetic probability?
ਜਵਾਬ
For independent events that must both occur; multiply their probabilities.
ਕਾਰਡ 467
ਸਵਾਲ
When is the sum rule used in genetic probability?
ਜਵਾਬ
For mutually exclusive alternative outcomes; add their probabilities.
ਕਾਰਡ 468
ਸਵਾਲ
Why do polygenic traits often show continuous variation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Many loci contribute small effects, creating many possible genotypes and phenotypes, often further influenced by environment.
ਕਾਰਡ 469
ਸਵਾਲ
What pedigree pattern can suggest an autosomal recessive trait?
ਜਵਾਬ
Unaffected parents can have affected children, and all sexes are affected at similar frequencies.
ਕਾਰਡ 470
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a species?
ਜਵਾਬ
A group of organisms whose members can potentially interbreed and produce fertile offspring under natural conditions.
ਕਾਰਡ 471
ਸਵਾਲ
What is binomial nomenclature?
ਜਵਾਬ
The two-part scientific naming system using a genus name followed by a specific epithet.
ਕਾਰਡ 472
ਸਵਾਲ
What is taxonomy?
ਜਵਾਬ
The naming and classification of organisms.
ਕਾਰਡ 473
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a biological domain?
ਜਵਾਬ
The broadest commonly used taxonomic rank, separating Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
ਕਾਰਡ 474
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a naturally interbreeding group producing fertile offspring?
ਜਵਾਬ
a species
ਕਾਰਡ 475
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the genus-plus-specific-epithet naming system?
ਜਵਾਬ
binomial nomenclature
ਕਾਰਡ 476
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the science of naming and classifying organisms?
ਜਵਾਬ
taxonomy
ਕਾਰਡ 477
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the broadest common taxonomic rank?
ਜਵਾਬ
a biological domain
ਕਾਰਡ 478
ਸਵਾਲ
What is biodiversity?
ਜਵਾਬ
Variation of life at genetic, species, and ecosystem levels.
ਕਾਰਡ 479
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an autotroph?
ਜਵਾਬ
An organism that makes organic compounds from inorganic carbon using light or chemical energy.
ਕਾਰਡ 480
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a heterotroph?
ਜਵਾਬ
An organism that obtains organic carbon by consuming other organisms or their products.
960 ਕਾਰਡ
IB Biology SL Flashcards: Complete Course Review
ਇਸ ਡੈੱਕ ਨਾਲ ਮੁਫ਼ਤ ਪੜ੍ਹੋਪੜ੍ਹਾਈ ਸ਼ੁਰੂ ਕਰਨ ਲਈ Nibomo ਖੁੱਲ੍ਹੇਗਾ।
ਕਾਰਡ 481
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a unicellular organism?
ਜਵਾਬ
An organism consisting of one cell that carries out all essential life functions.
ਕਾਰਡ 482
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes variation of life across genes, species, and ecosystems?
ਜਵਾਬ
biodiversity
ਕਾਰਡ 483
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an organism that builds organic matter from inorganic carbon?
ਜਵਾਬ
an autotroph
ਕਾਰਡ 484
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an organism obtaining organic carbon from other organisms?
ਜਵਾਬ
a heterotroph
ਕਾਰਡ 485
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an organism made of one cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
a unicellular organism
ਕਾਰਡ 486
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a multicellular organism?
ਜਵਾਬ
An organism composed of many cooperating cells, often with specialized cell types.
ਕਾਰਡ 487
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a karyotype?
ਜਵਾਬ
An ordered display of chromosomes used to examine their number and large-scale structure.
ਕਾਰਡ 488
ਸਵਾਲ
What broad feature distinguishes both Bacteria and Archaea from Eukarya?
ਜਵਾਬ
Their cells lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
ਕਾਰਡ 489
ਸਵਾਲ
What features characterize most plant cells?
ਜਵਾਬ
Cellulose walls, chloroplasts in photosynthetic tissues, and large vacuoles are typical features.
ਕਾਰਡ 490
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an organism made of many cooperating cells?
ਜਵਾਬ
a multicellular organism
ਕਾਰਡ 491
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an ordered display of an individual's chromosomes?
ਜਵਾਬ
a karyotype
ਕਾਰਡ 492
ਸਵਾਲ
How do fungi obtain nutrients?
ਜਵਾਬ
They secrete digestive enzymes and absorb soluble products; their cells usually have chitin-containing walls.
ਕਾਰਡ 493
ਸਵਾਲ
What distinguishes animal nutrition and cell structure?
ਜਵਾਬ
Animals ingest organic material, and their cells lack cell walls and chloroplasts.
ਕਾਰਡ 494
ਸਵਾਲ
Why are scientific names useful across languages?
ਜਵਾਬ
A standardized name identifies the same organism internationally and reduces ambiguity from local common names.
ਕਾਰਡ 495
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can genetic diversity improve a population's resilience?
ਜਵਾਬ
More heritable variation increases the chance that some individuals tolerate new diseases or environmental changes.
ਕਾਰਡ 496
ਸਵਾਲ
What does ecosystem diversity measure?
ਜਵਾਬ
The variety of habitats, communities, and ecological processes within a region.
ਕਾਰਡ 497
ਸਵਾਲ
Why are Archaea classified separately from Bacteria?
ਜਵਾਬ
They differ in genetic sequences, membrane chemistry, cell-wall composition, and aspects of molecular machinery.
ਕਾਰਡ 498
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is the biological species concept difficult to apply to fossils or asexual organisms?
ਜਵਾਬ
Their ability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring cannot be tested in the usual way.
ਕਾਰਡ 499
ਸਵਾਲ
Does a larger chromosome number necessarily mean a more complex organism?
ਜਵਾਬ
No. Chromosome number varies through fusion, fission, and duplication and does not directly measure biological complexity.
ਕਾਰਡ 500
ਸਵਾਲ
Does genome size reliably predict organismal complexity?
ਜਵਾਬ
No. Large amounts of noncoding and repeated DNA make genome size a poor simple measure of complexity.
ਕਾਰਡ 501
ਸਵਾਲ
What evidence can be combined when classifying organisms?
ਜਵਾਬ
Molecular sequences, cell structure, anatomy, development, physiology, and reproductive evidence can all contribute.
ਕਾਰਡ 502
ਸਵਾਲ
What is gas exchange?
ਜਵਾਬ
Diffusion of respiratory gases between an organism and its environment or transport fluid.
ਕਾਰਡ 503
ਸਵਾਲ
What is ventilation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Bulk movement of air or water over a gas-exchange surface.
ਕਾਰਡ 504
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an alveolus?
ਜਵਾਬ
A microscopic air sac in the lung where gases diffuse between air and blood.
ਕਾਰਡ 505
ਸਵਾਲ
What is pulmonary surfactant?
ਜਵਾਬ
A substance lining alveoli that lowers surface tension and reduces collapse.
ਕਾਰਡ 506
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide across a respiratory surface?
ਜਵਾਬ
gas exchange
ਕਾਰਡ 507
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes bulk movement of respiratory medium over an exchange surface?
ਜਵਾਬ
ventilation
ਕਾਰਡ 508
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a microscopic lung air sac?
ਜਵਾਬ
an alveolus
ਕਾਰਡ 509
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the alveolar lining that lowers surface tension?
ਜਵਾਬ
pulmonary surfactant
ਕਾਰਡ 510
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the diaphragm?
ਜਵਾਬ
A sheet of skeletal muscle whose contraction increases thoracic volume during inhalation.
ਕਾਰਡ 511
ਸਵਾਲ
What is tidal volume?
ਜਵਾਬ
The volume of air moved in or out during a normal breath.
ਕਾਰਡ 512
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a stoma?
ਜਵਾਬ
A regulated epidermal pore through which gases diffuse in leaves.
ਕਾਰਡ 513
ਸਵਾਲ
What is countercurrent exchange?
ਜਵਾਬ
Exchange between fluids moving in opposite directions, maintaining a gradient along most of the surface.
ਕਾਰਡ 514
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the muscle sheet that expands the thorax during inhalation?
ਜਵਾਬ
the diaphragm
ਕਾਰਡ 515
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes air volume moved in one normal breath?
ਜਵਾਬ
tidal volume
ਕਾਰਡ 516
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a regulated leaf gas-exchange pore?
ਜਵਾਬ
a stoma
ਕਾਰਡ 517
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes opposite fluid flow that maintains an exchange gradient?
ਜਵਾਬ
countercurrent exchange
ਕਾਰਡ 518
ਸਵਾਲ
What features make an efficient gas-exchange surface?
ਜਵਾਬ
Large area, short diffusion distance, permeability, and maintained concentration gradients.
ਕਾਰਡ 519
ਸਵਾਲ
How is a steep oxygen gradient maintained across alveoli?
ਜਵਾਬ
Ventilation replenishes alveolar oxygen and blood flow removes absorbed oxygen.
ਕਾਰਡ 520
ਸਵਾਲ
How does diaphragm contraction cause inhalation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Thoracic volume increases, lung pressure falls below atmospheric pressure, and air flows inward.
ਕਾਰਡ 521
ਸਵਾਲ
What drives quiet exhalation?
ਜਵਾਬ
The diaphragm relaxes and elastic recoil reduces thoracic and lung volume, raising pressure and pushing air out.
ਕਾਰਡ 522
ਸਵਾਲ
Why do ventilation rate and depth increase during exercise?
ਜਵਾਬ
They increase oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal to support higher cellular respiration.
ਕਾਰਡ 523
ਸਵਾਲ
How does leaf structure shorten the pathway for carbon dioxide diffusion?
ਜਵਾਬ
Stomata open into air spaces, and mesophyll cells expose moist surfaces close to those spaces.
ਕਾਰਡ 524
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does carbon dioxide diffuse from tissues into blood?
ਜਵਾਬ
Respiring cells produce carbon dioxide, making its partial pressure higher in tissues than in incoming blood.
ਕਾਰਡ 525
ਸਵਾਲ
How does countercurrent flow improve oxygen uptake at fish gills?
ਜਵਾਬ
Blood continually meets water with a higher oxygen concentration, preserving diffusion along the lamella.
ਕਾਰਡ 526
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does closing stomata reduce both water loss and photosynthesis?
ਜਵਾਬ
It limits water-vapor diffusion out but also restricts carbon dioxide diffusion into the leaf.
ਕਾਰਡ 527
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a circulatory system?
ਜਵਾਬ
A transport system that moves a fluid carrying gases, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and heat through an organism.
ਕਾਰਡ 528
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an artery?
ਜਵਾਬ
A blood vessel carrying blood away from the heart under relatively high pressure.
ਕਾਰਡ 529
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a vein?
ਜਵਾਬ
A blood vessel carrying blood toward the heart, usually with low pressure and often valves.
ਕਾਰਡ 530
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a capillary?
ਜਵਾਬ
A microscopic thin-walled vessel where substances exchange between blood and tissues.
ਕਾਰਡ 531
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an internal fluid-transport system?
ਜਵਾਬ
a circulatory system
ਕਾਰਡ 532
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a vessel carrying blood away from the heart?
ਜਵਾਬ
an artery
ਕਾਰਡ 533
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a vessel carrying blood toward the heart?
ਜਵਾਬ
a vein
ਕਾਰਡ 534
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a microscopic exchange blood vessel?
ਜਵਾਬ
a capillary
ਕਾਰਡ 535
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the cardiac cycle?
ਜਵਾਬ
The repeating sequence of heart-chamber contraction and relaxation that pumps blood.
ਕਾਰਡ 536
ਸਵਾਲ
What is hemoglobin?
ਜਵਾਬ
An iron-containing protein in red blood cells that binds oxygen reversibly.
ਕਾਰਡ 537
ਸਵਾਲ
What is xylem?
ਜਵਾਬ
Plant vascular tissue that transports water and mineral ions and provides structural support.
ਕਾਰਡ 538
ਸਵਾਲ
What is phloem?
ਜਵਾਬ
Plant vascular tissue that transports sucrose and other organic solutes between sources and sinks.
ਕਾਰਡ 539
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the repeating pumping sequence of the heart?
ਜਵਾਬ
the cardiac cycle
ਕਾਰਡ 540
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the oxygen-carrying protein of red blood cells?
ਜਵਾਬ
hemoglobin
ਕਾਰਡ 541
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes plant tissue carrying water and minerals?
ਜਵਾਬ
xylem
ਕਾਰਡ 542
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes plant tissue carrying organic solutes?
ਜਵਾਬ
phloem
ਕਾਰਡ 543
ਸਵਾਲ
What is transpiration?
ਜਵਾਬ
Loss of water vapor from plant surfaces, mainly through stomata.
ਕਾਰਡ 544
ਸਵਾਲ
What is phloem translocation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Movement of organic solutes through phloem from sources to sinks.
ਕਾਰਡ 545
ਸਵਾਲ
How do a source and a sink differ in plant transport?
ਜਵਾਬ
A source releases assimilates to phloem; a sink removes them for use or storage.
ਕਾਰਡ 546
ਸਵਾਲ
What makes human circulation a double circulation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Blood passes through the heart once in the pulmonary circuit and again in the systemic circuit during one complete journey.
ਕਾਰਡ 547
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes water-vapor loss from plant surfaces?
ਜਵਾਬ
transpiration
ਕਾਰਡ 548
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes movement of organic solutes through phloem?
ਜਵਾਬ
phloem translocation
ਕਾਰਡ 549
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the exporting and importing regions of phloem transport?
ਜਵਾਬ
source and sink
ਕਾਰਡ 550
ਸਵਾਲ
How is an artery adapted to high pressure?
ਜਵਾਬ
It has thick elastic and muscular walls and a relatively narrow lumen.
ਕਾਰਡ 551
ਸਵਾਲ
How is a vein adapted to return low-pressure blood?
ਜਵਾਬ
It has a wide lumen, thinner walls, and valves that reduce backflow.
ਕਾਰਡ 552
ਸਵਾਲ
How does capillary structure support exchange?
ਜਵਾਬ
One-cell-thick walls give a short diffusion distance; extensive branching gives a large total area; narrow lumens slow flow and keep blood close to tissues.
ਕਾਰਡ 553
ਸਵਾਲ
What determines whether a heart valve opens or closes?
ਜਵਾਬ
Pressure differences across the valve.
ਕਾਰਡ 554
ਸਵਾਲ
Trace water from soil to the atmosphere through a plant.
ਜਵਾਬ
Soil → root hairs → root tissues → xylem → leaf mesophyll → leaf air spaces → stomata → atmosphere.
ਕਾਰਡ 555
ਸਵਾਲ
Why may root cells use active transport to absorb mineral ions?
ਜਵਾਬ
Ion concentrations can be lower in soil than in root cells, so uptake must occur against a gradient.
ਕਾਰਡ 556
ਸਵਾਲ
Why do large multicellular organisms need bulk transport systems?
ਜਵਾਬ
Their low surface-area-to-volume ratio and long diffusion distances make diffusion alone too slow for whole-body supply.
ਕਾਰਡ 557
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does hemoglobin unload more oxygen in actively respiring tissues?
ਜਵਾਬ
Lower oxygen and often higher carbon dioxide and acidity reduce hemoglobin's oxygen affinity.
ਕਾਰਡ 558
ਸਵਾਲ
How does transpiration pull water upward through xylem?
ਜਵਾਬ
Evaporation lowers leaf water potential and creates tension; cohesion transmits the pull through the continuous water column.
ਕਾਰਡ 559
ਸਵਾਲ
How do wind and low humidity generally affect transpiration?
ਜਵਾਬ
Both maintain a steep water-vapor gradient outside the leaf, increasing transpiration if stomata remain open.
ਕਾਰਡ 560
ਸਵਾਲ
What drives mass flow in phloem?
ਜਵਾਬ
Sugar loading draws in water and raises pressure at a source; unloading lowers pressure at a sink, producing bulk flow.
ਕਾਰਡ 561
ਸਵਾਲ
Can the same plant organ be a source at one time and a sink at another?
ਜਵਾਬ
Yes. A storage organ may import sugars while filling and export them later during growth or germination.
ਕਾਰਡ 562
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a neuron?
ਜਵਾਬ
An excitable cell specialized to receive, process, and transmit information.
ਕਾਰਡ 563
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a sensory neuron?
ਜਵਾਬ
A neuron carrying information from a receptor toward the central nervous system.
ਕਾਰਡ 564
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a motor neuron?
ਜਵਾਬ
A neuron carrying commands from the central nervous system to an effector.
ਕਾਰਡ 565
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the resting potential?
ਜਵਾਬ
The voltage difference across an unstimulated neuron's membrane, with the inside negative relative to outside.
ਕਾਰਡ 566
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an excitable information-transmitting cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
a neuron
ਕਾਰਡ 567
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a neuron carrying receptor information to the CNS?
ਜਵਾਬ
a sensory neuron
ਕਾਰਡ 568
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a neuron carrying CNS commands to an effector?
ਜਵਾਬ
a motor neuron
ਕਾਰਡ 569
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the negative-inside voltage of an unstimulated neuron?
ਜਵਾਬ
the resting potential
ਕਾਰਡ 570
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an action potential?
ਜਵਾਬ
A brief, self-propagating reversal and restoration of membrane potential along an excitable membrane.
ਕਾਰਡ 571
ਸਵਾਲ
What is depolarization?
ਜਵਾਬ
A change that makes membrane potential less negative, and during an action potential often positive.
ਕਾਰਡ 572
ਸਵਾਲ
What is repolarization?
ਜਵਾਬ
Return of membrane potential toward its resting negative value after depolarization.
ਕਾਰਡ 573
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a synapse?
ਜਵਾਬ
A junction where one cell communicates with another cell.
ਕਾਰਡ 574
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a brief propagating change in neuron membrane voltage?
ਜਵਾਬ
an action potential
ਕਾਰਡ 575
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a membrane-voltage change toward a less negative value?
ਜਵਾਬ
depolarization
ਕਾਰਡ 576
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes return toward resting membrane voltage?
ਜਵਾਬ
repolarization
ਕਾਰਡ 577
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a communication junction between cells?
ਜਵਾਬ
a synapse
ਕਾਰਡ 578
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a neurotransmitter?
ਜਵਾਬ
A chemical released by a neuron that changes the activity of a target cell.
ਕਾਰਡ 579
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the refractory period?
ਜਵਾਬ
A brief period after an action potential when another is impossible or requires a stronger stimulus.
ਕਾਰਡ 580
ਸਵਾਲ
What is myelin?
ਜਵਾਬ
An insulating sheath around some axons that speeds impulse conduction.
ਕਾਰਡ 581
ਸਵਾਲ
What happens when membrane depolarization reaches threshold?
ਜਵਾਬ
Voltage-gated channels trigger the self-amplifying events of an action potential.
ਕਾਰਡ 582
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a neuron-released signaling chemical?
ਜਵਾਬ
a neurotransmitter
ਕਾਰਡ 583
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the recovery interval after an action potential?
ਜਵਾਬ
the refractory period
ਕਾਰਡ 584
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the insulating axon sheath?
ਜਵਾਬ
myelin
ਕਾਰਡ 585
ਸਵਾਲ
What does the all-or-none principle mean for an action potential?
ਜਵਾਬ
Once threshold is reached, the action potential has a characteristic size; stronger stimuli increase frequency, not its amplitude.
ਕਾਰਡ 586
ਸਵਾਲ
How does myelin increase conduction speed?
ਜਵਾਬ
Depolarizing current travels rapidly beneath myelin and action potentials regenerate mainly at gaps in the sheath.
ਕਾਰਡ 587
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the basic sequence at a chemical synapse?
ਜਵਾਬ
An impulse triggers neurotransmitter release; it diffuses across the cleft, binds receptors, and alters the postsynaptic cell.
ਕਾਰਡ 588
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can a reflex response be rapid?
ਜਵਾਬ
A short neural pathway produces an automatic response without waiting for conscious processing.
ਕਾਰਡ 589
ਸਵਾਲ
What is sensory transduction?
ਜਵਾਬ
Conversion of a physical or chemical stimulus into an electrical signal in a receptor cell.
ਕਾਰਡ 590
ਸਵਾਲ
How does an action potential propagate along an axon?
ਜਵਾਬ
Local current depolarizes the next membrane region to threshold, opening voltage-gated channels there.
ਕਾਰਡ 591
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does an action potential normally travel in one direction along an axon?
ਜਵਾਬ
The membrane just behind it is refractory and cannot immediately fire again.
ਕਾਰਡ 592
ਸਵਾਲ
How is neurotransmitter action ended?
ਜਵਾਬ
The transmitter is removed by enzymatic breakdown, reuptake, or diffusion away.
ਕਾਰਡ 593
ਸਵਾਲ
What is sensory adaptation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Reduced receptor or neural response during a constant, unchanging stimulus.
ਕਾਰਡ 594
ਸਵਾਲ
How can a drug alter synaptic transmission?
ਜਵਾਬ
It may mimic or block a transmitter, change its release, or change its removal from the synaptic cleft.
ਕਾਰਡ 595
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an organ system?
ਜਵਾਬ
A group of organs coordinating to perform major functions for an organism.
ਕਾਰਡ 596
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a hormone?
ਜਵਾਬ
A signaling molecule released into transport fluid and acting on target cells with suitable receptors.
ਕਾਰਡ 597
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an endocrine gland?
ਜਵਾਬ
A gland that secretes hormones into extracellular fluid and blood rather than through a duct.
ਕਾਰਡ 598
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a hormone target cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
A cell able to respond because it has the appropriate receptor.
ਕਾਰਡ 599
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a coordinated group of organs?
ਜਵਾਬ
an organ system
ਕਾਰਡ 600
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a long-distance chemical messenger carried in body fluid?
ਜਵਾਬ
a hormone
ਕਾਰਡ 601
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a ductless hormone-secreting gland?
ਜਵਾਬ
an endocrine gland
ਕਾਰਡ 602
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a cell with a receptor for a particular hormone?
ਜਵਾਬ
a hormone target cell
ਕਾਰਡ 603
ਸਵਾਲ
What is digestion?
ਜਵਾਬ
Mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into molecules small enough to absorb.
ਕਾਰਡ 604
ਸਵਾਲ
What is absorption?
ਜਵਾਬ
Movement of digested nutrients across an exchange surface into blood or lymph.
ਕਾਰਡ 605
ਸਵਾਲ
What is peristalsis?
ਜਵਾਬ
Coordinated waves of smooth-muscle contraction that move material through the digestive tract.
ਕਾਰਡ 606
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an intestinal villus?
ਜਵਾਬ
A finger-like projection increasing the absorptive surface of the small intestine.
ਕਾਰਡ 607
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes breakdown of food into absorbable molecules?
ਜਵਾਬ
digestion
ਕਾਰਡ 608
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes movement of digested nutrients into transport fluids?
ਜਵਾਬ
absorption
ਕਾਰਡ 609
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes wave-like gut contractions moving contents?
ਜਵਾਬ
peristalsis
ਕਾਰਡ 610
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a finger-like intestinal absorption projection?
ਜਵਾਬ
an intestinal villus
ਕਾਰਡ 611
ਸਵਾਲ
What is excretion?
ਜਵਾਬ
Removal of metabolic waste products from the body.
ਕਾਰਡ 612
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a nephron?
ਜਵਾਬ
The microscopic functional unit of the kidney that filters blood and modifies filtrate into urine.
ਕਾਰਡ 613
ਸਵਾਲ
What is ultrafiltration?
ਜਵਾਬ
Pressure-driven filtration of small molecules from blood into a kidney capsule while cells and most proteins remain in blood.
ਕਾਰਡ 614
ਸਵਾਲ
What is selective reabsorption?
ਜਵਾਬ
Recovery of useful substances and regulated amounts of water and ions from kidney filtrate into blood.
ਕਾਰਡ 615
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes removal of metabolic wastes?
ਜਵਾਬ
excretion
ਕਾਰਡ 616
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the kidney's microscopic functional unit?
ਜਵਾਬ
a nephron
ਕਾਰਡ 617
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes pressure filtration at the start of a nephron?
ਜਵਾਬ
ultrafiltration
ਕਾਰਡ 618
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes return of useful substances from kidney filtrate to blood?
ਜਵਾਬ
selective reabsorption
ਕਾਰਡ 619
ਸਵਾਲ
What is skeletal muscle?
ਜਵਾਬ
Striated voluntary muscle attached to the skeleton and used for movement and posture.
ਕਾਰਡ 620
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an antagonistic muscle pair?
ਜਵਾਬ
Two muscles producing opposite movements at a joint because muscles pull but do not push.
ਕਾਰਡ 621
ਸਵਾਲ
How do nervous and endocrine signaling generally differ?
ਜਵਾਬ
Neural signals are rapid and targeted; hormonal signals are usually slower, longer-lasting, and distributed through body fluids.
ਕਾਰਡ 622
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does a circulating hormone affect only some cells?
ਜਵਾਬ
Only target cells express receptors that recognize the hormone and activate a response.
ਕਾਰਡ 623
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes voluntary striated muscle that moves the skeleton?
ਜਵਾਬ
skeletal muscle
ਕਾਰਡ 624
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes two muscles producing opposite joint movements?
ਜਵਾਬ
an antagonistic muscle pair
ਕਾਰਡ 625
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the final absorbable product of most dietary carbohydrate digestion?
ਜਵਾਬ
Monosaccharides, especially glucose.
ਕਾਰਡ 626
ਸਵਾਲ
What are the main absorbable products of protein digestion?
ਜਵਾਬ
Amino acids and small peptides that are completed to amino acids during absorption.
ਕਾਰਡ 627
ਸਵਾਲ
How is the small intestine adapted for absorption?
ਜਵਾਬ
Folds, villi, and microvilli increase area; a thin epithelium, rich blood supply, and lymph vessels support transport.
ਕਾਰਡ 628
ਸਵਾਲ
Name three integrative roles of the liver.
ਜਵਾਬ
It processes absorbed nutrients, regulates blood chemistry, detoxifies substances, produces bile, and converts ammonia to urea; any three are sufficient.
ਕਾਰਡ 629
ਸਵਾਲ
Why are blood cells and most plasma proteins absent from normal kidney filtrate?
ਜਵਾਬ
They are too large to cross the filtration barrier.
ਕਾਰਡ 630
ਸਵਾਲ
How do muscles move a bone at a joint?
ਜਵਾਬ
Contraction shortens the muscle, pulling through a tendon on the bone.
ਕਾਰਡ 631
ਸਵਾਲ
Why are antagonistic muscles needed at many joints?
ਜਵਾਬ
A muscle can pull in one direction but cannot push itself back, so an opposing muscle produces the reverse movement.
ਕਾਰਡ 632
ਸਵਾਲ
Why must organ systems be integrated rather than acting independently?
ਜਵਾਬ
Each system depends on materials, signals, waste removal, and stable conditions supplied by other systems.
ਕਾਰਡ 633
ਸਵਾਲ
Why do many absorbed lipids enter lymph before blood?
ਜਵਾਬ
Intestinal cells package them into lipoprotein particles too large to enter ordinary blood capillaries directly.
ਕਾਰਡ 634
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is glucose normally absent from final urine?
ਜਵਾਬ
Filtered glucose is selectively reabsorbed into blood when transporter capacity is not exceeded.
ਕਾਰਡ 635
ਸਵਾਲ
How do respiratory, circulatory, and muscular systems cooperate during exercise?
ਜਵਾਬ
Ventilation supplies oxygen, circulation transports gases and fuels, and muscles use ATP while returning carbon dioxide, heat, and metabolites.
ਕਾਰਡ 636
ਸਵਾਲ
How do liver, circulation, and kidneys cooperate in nitrogen-waste removal?
ਜਵਾਬ
The liver converts toxic ammonia to urea, blood carries urea, and kidneys filter and excrete it.
ਕਾਰਡ 637
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a pathogen?
ਜਵਾਬ
A biological agent capable of causing disease.
ਕਾਰਡ 638
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an antigen?
ਜਵਾਬ
A molecule recognized specifically by an antibody or lymphocyte receptor.
ਕਾਰਡ 639
ਸਵਾਲ
What is innate immunity?
ਜਵਾਬ
Rapid, nonspecific defense mechanisms present without prior exposure.
ਕਾਰਡ 640
ਸਵਾਲ
What is adaptive immunity?
ਜਵਾਬ
Specific defense that develops through lymphocyte activation and can form memory.
ਕਾਰਡ 641
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a disease-causing biological agent?
ਜਵਾਬ
a pathogen
ਕਾਰਡ 642
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a molecule specifically recognized by adaptive immune receptors?
ਜਵਾਬ
an antigen
ਕਾਰਡ 643
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes rapid nonspecific immune defense?
ਜਵਾਬ
innate immunity
ਕਾਰਡ 644
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes specific immune defense capable of memory?
ਜਵਾਬ
adaptive immunity
ਕਾਰਡ 645
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a phagocyte?
ਜਵਾਬ
A cell that engulfs and digests microbes, particles, or damaged cells.
ਕਾਰਡ 646
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a lymphocyte?
ਜਵਾਬ
An adaptive immune cell with receptors specific to particular antigens.
ਕਾਰਡ 647
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an antibody?
ਜਵਾਬ
A secreted immunoglobulin that binds a specific antigen.
ਕਾਰਡ 648
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a B lymphocyte?
ਜਵਾਬ
A lymphocyte that can differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells and memory cells.
ਕਾਰਡ 649
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an engulfing immune cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
a phagocyte
ਕਾਰਡ 650
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an antigen-specific adaptive immune cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
a lymphocyte
ਕਾਰਡ 651
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a secreted antigen-binding immunoglobulin?
ਜਵਾਬ
an antibody
ਕਾਰਡ 652
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the lymphocyte lineage that produces antibody-secreting cells?
ਜਵਾਬ
a B lymphocyte
ਕਾਰਡ 653
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a helper T cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
A lymphocyte that coordinates immune responses through contact signals and cytokines.
ਕਾਰਡ 654
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an immune memory cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
A long-lived lymphocyte that responds rapidly after re-exposure to its antigen.
ਕਾਰਡ 655
ਸਵਾਲ
What is vaccination?
ਜਵਾਬ
Deliberate exposure to a safe form or component of an antigen to generate protective immune memory.
ਕਾਰਡ 656
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an antibiotic?
ਜਵਾਬ
A substance that kills bacteria or inhibits their growth at clinically useful doses.
ਕਾਰਡ 657
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the T cell that coordinates other immune cells?
ਜਵਾਬ
a helper T cell
ਕਾਰਡ 658
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a long-lived lymphocyte enabling faster re-exposure response?
ਜਵਾਬ
an immune memory cell
ਕਾਰਡ 659
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes safe antigen exposure used to create immune memory?
ਜਵਾਬ
vaccination
ਕਾਰਡ 660
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a drug acting against bacteria?
ਜਵਾਬ
an antibiotic
ਕਾਰਡ 661
ਸਵਾਲ
What are examples of first-line defenses against pathogens?
ਜਵਾਬ
Intact skin, mucus, cilia, antimicrobial secretions, stomach acidity, and competing microbiota.
ਕਾਰਡ 662
ਸਵਾਲ
How does inflammation help defend damaged tissue?
ਜਵਾਬ
It increases local blood flow and vessel permeability and recruits immune cells and defensive molecules.
ਕਾਰਡ 663
ਸਵਾਲ
What happens during phagocytosis?
ਜਵਾਬ
A cell surrounds a particle in a vesicle, then fuses it with digestive compartments to destroy or process it.
ਕਾਰਡ 664
ਸਵਾਲ
How can antibodies help eliminate a pathogen?
ਜਵਾਬ
They can neutralize targets, block attachment, clump particles, and mark them for phagocytosis or complement attack.
ਕਾਰਡ 665
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can a vaccine generate protection without causing the full disease?
ਜਵਾਬ
It presents antigen in a weakened, inactivated, partial, or encoded form that stimulates immunity with much lower risk.
ਕਾਰਡ 666
ਸਵਾਲ
Why do antibiotics not treat viral infections?
ਜਵਾਬ
Viruses lack the bacterial structures and independent metabolic processes targeted by antibiotics.
ਕਾਰਡ 667
ਸਵਾਲ
What determines the antigen specificity of a lymphocyte?
ਜਵਾਬ
The molecular shape and chemistry of its unique surface receptor.
ਕਾਰਡ 668
ਸਵਾਲ
What is clonal selection?
ਜਵਾਬ
An antigen activates lymphocytes with matching receptors, causing them to proliferate and differentiate.
ਕਾਰਡ 669
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is a secondary adaptive immune response usually faster and stronger?
ਜਵਾਬ
Memory cells are more numerous and activate rapidly, producing effective cells and antibodies sooner.
ਕਾਰਡ 670
ਸਵਾਲ
How can high vaccination coverage protect some unvaccinated people?
ਜਵਾਬ
Reduced transmission makes encounters with infectious individuals less likely, though protection is incomplete and pathogen-dependent.
ਕਾਰਡ 671
ਸਵਾਲ
How does antibiotic use select for resistant bacteria?
ਜਵਾਬ
Susceptible bacteria are removed while resistant variants survive and reproduce, increasing resistance-allele frequency.
ਕਾਰਡ 672
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can unnecessary or incomplete antibiotic exposure promote resistance?
ਜਵਾਬ
It creates selection favoring resistant cells while potentially leaving surviving bacteria to multiply and spread.
ਕਾਰਡ 673
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an allergy?
ਜਵਾਬ
An immune response to a normally harmless antigen that causes tissue symptoms or damage.
ਕਾਰਡ 674
ਸਵਾਲ
What is asexual reproduction?
ਜਵਾਬ
Production of offspring from one parent without fusion of gametes.
ਕਾਰਡ 675
ਸਵਾਲ
What is sexual reproduction?
ਜਵਾਬ
Production of offspring involving fusion of haploid gametes.
ਕਾਰਡ 676
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a gamete?
ਜਵਾਬ
A haploid reproductive cell able to fuse with another gamete.
ਕਾਰਡ 677
ਸਵਾਲ
What is fertilization?
ਜਵਾਬ
Fusion of gamete nuclei to form a diploid zygote.
ਕਾਰਡ 678
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes reproduction without gamete fusion?
ਜਵਾਬ
asexual reproduction
ਕਾਰਡ 679
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes reproduction involving gamete fusion?
ਜਵਾਬ
sexual reproduction
ਕਾਰਡ 680
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a haploid reproductive cell?
ਜਵਾਬ
a gamete
ਕਾਰਡ 681
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes fusion of gamete nuclei?
ਜਵਾਬ
fertilization
ਕਾਰਡ 682
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a zygote?
ਜਵਾਬ
The diploid cell formed by fertilization.
ਕਾਰਡ 683
ਸਵਾਲ
What is meiosis?
ਜਵਾਬ
Cell division that halves chromosome number and usually produces genetically varied haploid cells.
ਕਾਰਡ 684
ਸਵਾਲ
What is ovulation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Release of a secondary oocyte from an ovary.
ਕਾਰਡ 685
ਸਵਾਲ
What is implantation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Attachment and embedding of an early embryo in the uterine lining.
ਕਾਰਡ 686
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the first diploid cell after fertilization?
ਜਵਾਬ
a zygote
ਕਾਰਡ 687
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes division producing varied haploid cells?
ਜਵਾਬ
meiosis
ਕਾਰਡ 688
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes release of an oocyte from an ovary?
ਜਵਾਬ
ovulation
ਕਾਰਡ 689
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes embedding of an early embryo in the uterine lining?
ਜਵਾਬ
implantation
ਕਾਰਡ 690
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the placenta?
ਜਵਾਬ
A temporary organ that exchanges materials between maternal and fetal blood supplies without normally mixing them directly.
ਕਾਰਡ 691
ਸਵਾਲ
What is pollination?
ਜਵਾਬ
Transfer of pollen from an anther to a receptive stigma.
ਕਾਰਡ 692
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does sexual reproduction usually produce more genetic variation than asexual reproduction?
ਜਵਾਬ
Meiosis reshuffles alleles and random fertilization combines genomes from two gametes.
ਕਾਰਡ 693
ਸਵਾਲ
Why must gametes be haploid?
ਜਵਾਬ
Fusion of two haploid gametes restores the diploid chromosome number instead of doubling it each generation.
ਕਾਰਡ 694
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the maternal-fetal exchange organ?
ਜਵਾਬ
the placenta
ਕਾਰਡ 695
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes transfer of pollen to a stigma?
ਜਵਾਬ
pollination
ਕਾਰਡ 696
ਸਵਾਲ
What are major roles of FSH in the ovarian cycle?
ਜਵਾਬ
It stimulates follicle development and supports estrogen secretion.
ਕਾਰਡ 697
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a major role of the mid-cycle LH surge?
ਜਵਾਬ
It triggers ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum.
ਕਾਰਡ 698
ਸਵਾਲ
How does estrogen contribute to the uterine cycle?
ਜਵਾਬ
It promotes repair and thickening of the uterine lining after menstruation.
ਕਾਰਡ 699
ਸਵਾਲ
How does progesterone contribute to the uterine cycle?
ਜਵਾਬ
It maintains a thick, secretory uterine lining after ovulation.
ਕਾਰਡ 700
ਸਵਾਲ
Where does human fertilization usually occur?
ਜਵਾਬ
In an oviduct, before the early embryo reaches the uterus.
ਕਾਰਡ 701
ਸਵਾਲ
What happens after compatible pollen reaches a flower's stigma?
ਜਵਾਬ
A pollen tube grows toward an ovule and delivers male nuclei for fertilization.
ਕਾਰਡ 702
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does menstruation usually begin if pregnancy does not occur?
ਜਵਾਬ
The corpus luteum degenerates, progesterone and estrogen fall, and the uterine lining is no longer maintained.
ਕਾਰਡ 703
ਸਵਾਲ
What substances commonly cross the placenta between mother and fetus?
ਜਵਾਬ
Oxygen and nutrients move toward the fetus; carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes move toward the mother.
ਕਾਰਡ 704
ਸਵਾਲ
How can contraception prevent pregnancy in different ways?
ਜਵਾਬ
Methods can inhibit ovulation, block sperm from reaching an egg, prevent fertilization, or permanently interrupt the reproductive ducts.
ਕਾਰਡ 705
ਸਵਾਲ
What is homeostasis?
ਜਵਾਬ
Maintenance of internal conditions within ranges compatible with normal function despite change.
ਕਾਰਡ 706
ਸਵਾਲ
What is negative feedback?
ਜਵਾਬ
Control in which a deviation triggers responses that oppose the original change.
ਕਾਰਡ 707
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a set point?
ਜਵਾਬ
The target value or range around which a regulated variable is maintained.
ਕਾਰਡ 708
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a homeostatic receptor?
ਜਵਾਬ
A sensor that detects a change in a regulated variable.
ਕਾਰਡ 709
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes maintenance of a stable functional internal environment?
ਜਵਾਬ
homeostasis
ਕਾਰਡ 710
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes feedback that counteracts a deviation?
ਜਵਾਬ
negative feedback
ਕਾਰਡ 711
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the target around which a variable is regulated?
ਜਵਾਬ
a set point
ਕਾਰਡ 712
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the sensor in a feedback system?
ਜਵਾਬ
a homeostatic receptor
ਕਾਰਡ 713
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a control center?
ਜਵਾਬ
The component that compares information with a target and coordinates a response.
ਕਾਰਡ 714
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an effector?
ਜਵਾਬ
A muscle, gland, or other component that carries out a control response.
ਕਾਰਡ 715
ਸਵਾਲ
What is thermoregulation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Control of body temperature within a functional range.
ਕਾਰਡ 716
ਸਵਾਲ
What is vasodilation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Widening of blood vessels, often increasing blood flow near the skin.
ਕਾਰਡ 717
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the feedback component that evaluates input and directs a response?
ਜਵਾਬ
a control center
ਕਾਰਡ 718
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the component that executes a physiological response?
ਜਵਾਬ
an effector
ਕਾਰਡ 719
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes physiological regulation of body temperature?
ਜਵਾਬ
thermoregulation
ਕਾਰਡ 720
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes widening of blood vessels?
ਜਵਾਬ
vasodilation
ਕਾਰਡ 721
ਸਵਾਲ
What is vasoconstriction?
ਜਵਾਬ
Narrowing of blood vessels, often reducing blood flow near the skin.
ਕਾਰਡ 722
ਸਵਾਲ
What is insulin?
ਜਵਾਬ
A pancreatic hormone that lowers elevated blood glucose by promoting uptake and storage.
ਕਾਰਡ 723
ਸਵਾਲ
What is glucagon?
ਜਵਾਬ
A pancreatic hormone that raises low blood glucose by promoting release of stored fuel.
ਕਾਰਡ 724
ਸਵਾਲ
What are the main components of a homeostatic feedback loop?
ਜਵਾਬ
A regulated variable, receptor, control center, effectors, and responses that alter the variable.
ਕਾਰਡ 725
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes narrowing of blood vessels?
ਜਵਾਬ
vasoconstriction
ਕਾਰਡ 726
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the pancreatic hormone that lowers blood glucose?
ਜਵਾਬ
insulin
ਕਾਰਡ 727
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the pancreatic hormone that raises blood glucose?
ਜਵਾਬ
glucagon
ਕਾਰਡ 728
ਸਵਾਲ
What happens when blood glucose rises after a meal?
ਜਵਾਬ
Insulin secretion increases, promoting glucose uptake and storage so blood glucose falls toward its normal range.
ਕਾਰਡ 729
ਸਵਾਲ
What happens when blood glucose falls during fasting?
ਜਵਾਬ
Glucagon secretion increases, promoting glycogen breakdown and glucose release by the liver.
ਕਾਰਡ 730
ਸਵਾਲ
How does sweating cool the body?
ਜਵਾਬ
Evaporation of water from skin transfers heat to the environment.
ਕਾਰਡ 731
ਸਵਾਲ
How does skin vasodilation increase heat loss?
ਜਵਾਬ
It brings more warm blood near the surface, increasing transfer of heat to the environment.
ਕਾਰਡ 732
ਸਵਾਲ
How does shivering warm the body?
ਜਵਾਬ
Rapid involuntary muscle contractions increase respiration and heat production.
ਕਾਰਡ 733
ਸਵਾਲ
Does homeostasis keep internal conditions perfectly constant?
ਜਵਾਬ
No. Variables fluctuate within controlled ranges around target values.
ਕਾਰਡ 734
ਸਵਾਲ
How does ADH help conserve water?
ਜਵਾਬ
It increases water permeability in kidney collecting ducts, so more water is reabsorbed and urine becomes more concentrated.
ਕਾਰਡ 735
ਸਵਾਲ
How should ADH secretion change during dehydration?
ਜਵਾਬ
It should increase, promoting greater water reabsorption by the kidneys.
ਕਾਰਡ 736
ਸਵਾਲ
How does positive feedback differ from negative feedback?
ਜਵਾਬ
Positive feedback amplifies a change until an endpoint; negative feedback opposes a change and stabilizes a variable.
ਕਾਰਡ 737
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can diabetes mellitus cause persistently high blood glucose?
ਜਵਾਬ
Insulin production may be insufficient or target cells may respond poorly to insulin.
ਕਾਰਡ 738
ਸਵਾਲ
What is biological evolution?
ਜਵਾਬ
Change in heritable characteristics or allele frequencies of a population across generations.
ਕਾਰਡ 739
ਸਵਾਲ
What is allele frequency?
ਜਵਾਬ
The proportion of gene copies in a population represented by a particular allele.
ਕਾਰਡ 740
ਸਵਾਲ
What is microevolution?
ਜਵਾਬ
Evolutionary change in allele frequencies within populations over relatively short timescales.
ਕਾਰਡ 741
ਸਵਾਲ
What is speciation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Evolutionary formation of new species.
ਕਾਰਡ 742
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes change in a population's heritable composition across generations?
ਜਵਾਬ
biological evolution
ਕਾਰਡ 743
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the proportion of a population's gene copies that are one allele?
ਜਵਾਬ
allele frequency
ਕਾਰਡ 744
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes short-timescale allele-frequency change within populations?
ਜਵਾਬ
microevolution
ਕਾਰਡ 745
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes formation of new species?
ਜਵਾਬ
speciation
ਕਾਰਡ 746
ਸਵਾਲ
What is reproductive isolation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Barriers that prevent or greatly reduce gene flow between populations.
ਕਾਰਡ 747
ਸਵਾਲ
What is allopatric speciation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Speciation after populations become geographically separated and diverge.
ਕਾਰਡ 748
ਸਵਾਲ
What is sympatric speciation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Speciation without geographic separation, through reproductive isolation within the same area.
ਕਾਰਡ 749
ਸਵਾਲ
What are homologous structures?
ਜਵਾਬ
Structures similar because they were inherited from a common ancestor, even if their functions differ.
ਕਾਰਡ 750
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes barriers reducing gene flow between populations?
ਜਵਾਬ
reproductive isolation
ਕਾਰਡ 751
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes speciation following geographic separation?
ਜਵਾਬ
allopatric speciation
ਕਾਰਡ 752
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes speciation within the same geographic area?
ਜਵਾਬ
sympatric speciation
ਕਾਰਡ 753
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes structures similar through common ancestry?
ਜਵਾਬ
homologous structures
ਕਾਰਡ 754
ਸਵਾਲ
What are analogous structures?
ਜਵਾਬ
Structures with similar functions that evolved independently rather than from the same ancestral structure.
ਕਾਰਡ 755
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a common ancestor?
ਜਵਾਬ
An ancestral population from which two or more descendant lineages evolved.
ਕਾਰਡ 756
ਸਵਾਲ
How does the fossil record provide evidence for evolution?
ਜਵਾਬ
It documents organisms from different times, including appearance, change, persistence, and extinction of lineages.
ਕਾਰਡ 757
ਸਵਾਲ
How do DNA and protein sequences provide evidence of common ancestry?
ਜਵਾਬ
Shared sequences are inherited; greater similarity generally indicates more recent common ancestry.
ਕਾਰਡ 758
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes functionally similar structures of independent evolutionary origin?
ਜਵਾਬ
analogous structures
ਕਾਰਡ 759
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an ancestral population shared by descendant lineages?
ਜਵਾਬ
a common ancestor
ਕਾਰਡ 760
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the evolutionary significance of extinction?
ਜਵਾਬ
It permanently ends a lineage and can alter ecological opportunities and the future diversification of survivors.
ਕਾਰਡ 761
ਸਵਾਲ
Do individual organisms evolve during their lifetimes?
ਜਵਾਬ
No. Individuals develop and acclimate; evolution is heritable change in populations across generations.
ਕਾਰਡ 762
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is evolution represented as a branching tree rather than a ladder?
ਜਵਾਬ
Lineages split from common ancestors; living species are not arranged as stages toward a single goal.
ਕਾਰਡ 763
ਸਵਾਲ
How can island species support evolutionary explanations?
ਜਵਾਬ
Their similarities to nearby mainland ancestors and unique local adaptations fit divergence after colonization and isolation.
ਕਾਰਡ 764
ਸਵਾਲ
How can geographic isolation lead to reproductive isolation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Separated populations accumulate different mutations and experience different selection and drift until interbreeding is reduced.
ਕਾਰਡ 765
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can continuing gene flow slow speciation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Movement of alleles between populations counteracts genetic divergence.
ਕਾਰਡ 766
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can unrelated species evolve similar traits?
ਜਵਾਬ
Similar environmental challenges can favor similar functional solutions through convergent evolution.
ਕਾਰਡ 767
ਸਵਾਲ
Which parts of evolution are random and which are nonrandom?
ਜਵਾਬ
Mutation and many sampling effects are random with respect to need; natural selection nonrandomly favors variants that reproduce better in a given environment.
ਕਾਰਡ 768
ਸਵਾਲ
What is conservation biology?
ਜਵਾਬ
The science and practice of protecting biodiversity, ecological processes, and evolutionary potential.
ਕਾਰਡ 769
ਸਵਾਲ
What is habitat fragmentation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Division of continuous habitat into smaller, isolated patches.
ਕਾਰਡ 770
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an endangered species?
ਜਵਾਬ
A species facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
ਕਾਰਡ 771
ਸਵਾਲ
What is in situ conservation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Protection of species in their natural habitats and ecological communities.
ਕਾਰਡ 772
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the protection of biodiversity and ecological processes?
ਜਵਾਬ
conservation biology
ਕਾਰਡ 773
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes division of habitat into isolated patches?
ਜਵਾਬ
habitat fragmentation
ਕਾਰਡ 774
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a species at high risk of extinction?
ਜਵਾਬ
an endangered species
ਕਾਰਡ 775
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes conservation within natural habitat?
ਜਵਾਬ
in situ conservation
ਕਾਰਡ 776
ਸਵਾਲ
What is ex situ conservation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Protection of organisms or genetic material outside the natural habitat.
ਕਾਰਡ 777
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a population bottleneck?
ਜਵਾਬ
A sharp population reduction that can remove genetic variation by chance.
ਕਾਰਡ 778
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a wildlife corridor?
ਜਵਾਬ
Habitat connecting isolated patches to permit movement and gene flow.
ਕਾਰਡ 779
ਸਵਾਲ
What major human-driven processes threaten biodiversity?
ਜਵਾਬ
Habitat loss, overexploitation, invasive species, pollution, and climate change.
ਕਾਰਡ 780
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes conservation outside natural habitat?
ਜਵਾਬ
ex situ conservation
ਕਾਰਡ 781
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a severe population reduction that loses genetic diversity?
ਜਵਾਬ
a population bottleneck
ਕਾਰਡ 782
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes habitat linking isolated populations?
ਜਵਾਬ
a wildlife corridor
ਕਾਰਡ 783
ਸਵਾਲ
What makes a protected area more effective than a boundary alone?
ਜਵਾਬ
Adequate size, representative habitat, enforcement, connectivity, local support, and management of external threats.
ਕਾਰਡ 784
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is long-term population monitoring important in conservation?
ਜਵਾਬ
It reveals trends, tests whether management works, and provides early warning of decline.
ਕਾਰਡ 785
ਸਵਾਲ
How can ecosystem services support the case for conservation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Healthy ecosystems provide benefits such as pollination, water purification, carbon storage, soil formation, and cultural value.
ਕਾਰਡ 786
ਸਵਾਲ
Why are very small populations especially vulnerable to extinction?
ਜਵਾਬ
Chance events, inbreeding, low genetic diversity, and difficulty finding mates can reinforce decline.
ਕਾਰਡ 787
ਸਵਾਲ
What are benefits and limits of captive-breeding programs?
ਜਵਾਬ
They can prevent immediate extinction and manage breeding, but may lose diversity, alter behavior, and fail without safe habitat for release.
ਕਾਰਡ 788
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can controlling an invasive species aid conservation?
ਜਵਾਬ
It can reduce predation, competition, disease, or habitat alteration affecting native species.
ਕਾਰਡ 789
ਸਵਾਲ
Why must conservation priorities consider more than species count?
ਜਵਾਬ
Endemism, evolutionary distinctness, ecological roles, threat severity, feasibility, and human needs also matter.
ਕਾਰਡ 790
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an adaptation?
ਜਵਾਬ
A heritable characteristic that increases reproductive success in a particular environment.
ਕਾਰਡ 791
ਸਵਾਲ
What is acclimation?
ਜਵਾਬ
A reversible physiological or behavioral adjustment by an individual to environmental change.
ਕਾਰਡ 792
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a structural adaptation?
ਜਵਾਬ
An inherited anatomical feature that improves performance in an environment.
ਕਾਰਡ 793
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a physiological adaptation?
ਜਵਾਬ
An inherited functional or biochemical feature that improves performance in an environment.
ਕਾਰਡ 794
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a heritable trait improving reproductive success in context?
ਜਵਾਬ
an adaptation
ਕਾਰਡ 795
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an individual's reversible adjustment to environmental change?
ਜਵਾਬ
acclimation
ਕਾਰਡ 796
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an adaptive anatomical feature?
ਜਵਾਬ
a structural adaptation
ਕਾਰਡ 797
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an adaptive functional or biochemical feature?
ਜਵਾਬ
a physiological adaptation
ਕਾਰਡ 798
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a behavioral adaptation?
ਜਵਾਬ
An inherited behavior pattern that improves survival or reproduction.
ਕਾਰਡ 799
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an environmental tolerance range?
ਜਵਾਬ
The range of an abiotic condition within which an organism can survive and reproduce.
ਕਾਰਡ 800
ਸਵਾਲ
What is evolutionary fitness?
ਜਵਾਬ
Relative contribution of an individual or genotype to future generations.
ਕਾਰਡ 801
ਸਵਾਲ
How can a thick cuticle and reduced leaves help a desert plant?
ਜਵਾਬ
The cuticle lowers surface permeability, while smaller leaves reduce the area from which water can evaporate.
ਕਾਰਡ 802
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an adaptive behavior pattern?
ਜਵਾਬ
a behavioral adaptation
ਕਾਰਡ 803
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the survivable range of an abiotic condition?
ਜਵਾਬ
an environmental tolerance range
ਕਾਰਡ 804
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes relative reproductive contribution to future generations?
ਜਵਾਬ
evolutionary fitness
ਕਾਰਡ 805
ਸਵਾਲ
How can a streamlined body adapt an aquatic animal to movement?
ਜਵਾਬ
It reduces drag, lowering the energy needed to move through water.
ਕਾਰਡ 806
ਸਵਾਲ
Does an organism develop an adaptation because it needs one?
ਜਵਾਬ
No. Heritable variants arise without regard to need, and selection changes their frequencies across generations.
ਕਾਰਡ 807
ਸਵਾਲ
Why may organisms from different thermal environments have enzymes with different temperature optima?
ਜਵਾਬ
Selection favors protein structures that balance flexibility and stability under local temperatures.
ਕਾਰਡ 808
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is an adaptation rarely beneficial in every environment?
ਜਵਾਬ
Traits carry costs and their advantage depends on local resources, competitors, predators, and physical conditions.
ਕਾਰਡ 809
ਸਵਾਲ
How does phenotypic plasticity differ from genetic adaptation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Plasticity lets one genotype produce different phenotypes; adaptation is a heritable population trait shaped across generations.
ਕਾਰਡ 810
ਸਵਾਲ
What is local adaptation?
ਜਵਾਬ
A population has higher fitness in its home environment than foreign populations because selection favored local traits.
ਕਾਰਡ 811
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an ecological niche?
ਜਵਾਬ
The set of environmental conditions, resources, interactions, and functional roles associated with a species.
ਕਾਰਡ 812
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a habitat?
ਜਵਾਬ
The physical place or environment where an organism lives.
ਕਾਰਡ 813
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a fundamental niche?
ਜਵਾਬ
The full range of conditions and resources a species could use without limiting biotic interactions.
ਕਾਰਡ 814
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a realized niche?
ਜਵਾਬ
The conditions and resources a species actually uses after competition and other interactions.
ਕਾਰਡ 815
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a species' environmental requirements and ecological role?
ਜਵਾਬ
an ecological niche
ਕਾਰਡ 816
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the place where an organism lives?
ਜਵਾਬ
a habitat
ਕਾਰਡ 817
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the potential niche without limiting biotic interactions?
ਜਵਾਬ
a fundamental niche
ਕਾਰਡ 818
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the niche actually occupied in nature?
ਜਵਾਬ
a realized niche
ਕਾਰਡ 819
ਸਵਾਲ
What is competition?
ਜਵਾਬ
An interaction in which organisms reduce one another's access to a limited resource.
ਕਾਰਡ 820
ਸਵਾਲ
What is mutualism?
ਜਵਾਬ
An interaction in which both participating species benefit.
ਕਾਰਡ 821
ਸਵਾਲ
What is predation?
ਜਵਾਬ
An interaction in which one organism kills and consumes another.
ਕਾਰਡ 822
ਸਵਾਲ
How does a habitat differ from a niche?
ਜਵਾਬ
A habitat is where an organism lives; a niche includes how it uses conditions and resources and interacts there.
ਕਾਰਡ 823
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an interaction over a limited resource that harms both competitors?
ਜਵਾਬ
competition
ਕਾਰਡ 824
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an interspecific interaction benefiting both partners?
ਜਵਾਬ
mutualism
ਕਾਰਡ 825
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an interaction where one organism kills and eats another?
ਜਵਾਬ
predation
ਕਾਰਡ 826
ਸਵਾਲ
What kinds of factors define a niche?
ਜਵਾਬ
Abiotic factors such as temperature and moisture, plus biotic factors such as food, competitors, predators, and partners.
ਕਾਰਡ 827
ਸਵਾਲ
What does competitive exclusion predict?
ਜਵਾਬ
Species with effectively identical niches cannot coexist indefinitely under stable conditions; one is excluded or niches diverge.
ਕਾਰਡ 828
ਸਵਾਲ
How can resource partitioning reduce competition?
ਜਵਾਬ
Species use different resources, places, or times, reducing niche overlap.
ਕਾਰਡ 829
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a keystone species?
ਜਵਾਬ
A species whose effect on community structure is disproportionately large relative to its abundance.
ਕਾਰਡ 830
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can an introduced species expand rapidly in a new community?
ਜਵਾਬ
It may encounter abundant resources, suitable climate, and fewer predators, pathogens, or competitors.
ਕਾਰਡ 831
ਸਵਾਲ
Can an organism alter the niche conditions of other species?
ਜਵਾਬ
Yes. Ecosystem engineers modify habitat structure or resource availability, changing opportunities for other organisms.
ਕਾਰਡ 832
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a population?
ਜਵਾਬ
Individuals of the same species living in the same area at the same time.
ਕਾਰਡ 833
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an ecological community?
ਜਵਾਬ
Populations of different species living and interacting in an area.
ਕਾਰਡ 834
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an ecosystem?
ਜਵਾਬ
A community together with its physical environment and their interactions.
ਕਾਰਡ 835
ਸਵਾਲ
What is carrying capacity?
ਜਵਾਬ
The population size an environment can sustain over time under given conditions.
ਕਾਰਡ 836
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes same-species individuals sharing an area and time?
ਜਵਾਬ
a population
ਕਾਰਡ 837
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes interacting populations of different species?
ਜਵਾਬ
an ecological community
ਕਾਰਡ 838
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a community plus its abiotic environment?
ਜਵਾਬ
an ecosystem
ਕਾਰਡ 839
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the long-term supportable population size?
ਜਵਾਬ
carrying capacity
ਕਾਰਡ 840
ਸਵਾਲ
What is population density?
ਜਵਾਬ
The number of individuals per unit area or volume.
ਕਾਰਡ 841
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a limiting factor?
ਜਵਾਬ
A resource or condition that restricts population growth or distribution.
ਕਾਰਡ 842
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a density-dependent factor?
ਜਵਾਬ
A factor whose effect strengthens as population density increases.
ਕਾਰਡ 843
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a density-independent factor?
ਜਵਾਬ
A factor whose effect is not primarily determined by population density.
ਕਾਰਡ 844
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes individuals per unit area or volume?
ਜਵਾਬ
population density
ਕਾਰਡ 845
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a resource or condition restricting a population?
ਜਵਾਬ
a limiting factor
ਕਾਰਡ 846
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a factor with stronger effects at higher density?
ਜਵਾਬ
a density-dependent factor
ਕਾਰਡ 847
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a factor acting largely regardless of population density?
ਜਵਾਬ
a density-independent factor
ਕਾਰਡ 848
ਸਵਾਲ
What is exponential population growth?
ਜਵਾਬ
Growth at a constant per-capita rate, producing a J-shaped curve under ideal conditions.
ਕਾਰਡ 849
ਸਵਾਲ
What is logistic population growth?
ਜਵਾਬ
Growth that slows as population size approaches carrying capacity, producing an S-shaped model.
ਕਾਰਡ 850
ਸਵਾਲ
What four processes directly change population size?
ਜਵਾਬ
Births and immigration increase it; deaths and emigration decrease it.
ਕਾਰਡ 851
ਸਵਾਲ
Under what conditions can exponential growth occur temporarily?
ਜਵਾਬ
Resources are abundant and limiting effects such as competition, disease, and predation are weak.
ਕਾਰਡ 852
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes J-shaped growth at constant per-capita rate?
ਜਵਾਬ
exponential population growth
ਕਾਰਡ 853
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes S-shaped growth that slows near carrying capacity?
ਜਵਾਬ
logistic population growth
ਕਾਰਡ 854
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is infectious disease often density dependent?
ਜਵਾਬ
Close or frequent contact at high density increases transmission opportunities.
ਕਾਰਡ 855
ਸਵਾਲ
Give an example of a density-independent population factor.
ਜਵਾਬ
A severe storm, wildfire, drought, or freeze can affect populations regardless of their initial density.
ਕਾਰਡ 856
ਸਵਾਲ
When is quadrat sampling useful?
ਜਵਾਬ
For estimating abundance or frequency of sessile or slow-moving organisms in defined areas.
ਕਾਰਡ 857
ਸਵਾਲ
What can a transect reveal?
ਜਵਾਬ
How species occurrence or abundance changes along an environmental gradient.
ਕਾਰਡ 858
ਸਵਾਲ
What can happen when a population overshoots carrying capacity?
ਜਵਾਬ
Resource depletion may raise mortality or lower reproduction, causing decline or oscillation.
ਕਾਰਡ 859
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the basic mark–recapture estimate of population size?
ਜਵਾਬ
First sample marked × second sample total ÷ marked individuals recaptured.
ਕਾਰਡ 860
ਸਵਾਲ
What assumptions improve a mark–recapture estimate?
ਜਵਾਬ
Marks persist and do not affect survival, marked individuals mix, capture probability is similar, and the population is effectively closed.
ਕਾਰਡ 861
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does a correlation between two population variables not prove causation?
ਜਵਾਬ
A third factor, reverse influence, chance, or biased sampling could produce the association.
ਕਾਰਡ 862
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a trophic level?
ਜਵਾਬ
A feeding position in a food chain or web.
ਕਾਰਡ 863
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a producer?
ਜਵਾਬ
An autotroph that converts inorganic carbon into organic matter.
ਕਾਰਡ 864
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a consumer?
ਜਵਾਬ
An organism obtaining energy and matter by eating other organisms or organic material.
ਕਾਰਡ 865
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a decomposer?
ਜਵਾਬ
An organism that externally digests dead material and wastes and absorbs the products.
ਕਾਰਡ 866
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a feeding position in an ecosystem?
ਜਵਾਬ
a trophic level
ਕਾਰਡ 867
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an autotroph forming organic matter?
ਜਵਾਬ
a producer
ਕਾਰਡ 868
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an organism feeding on other organic matter?
ਜਵਾਬ
a consumer
ਕਾਰਡ 869
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an organism digesting dead organic matter externally?
ਜਵਾਬ
a decomposer
ਕਾਰਡ 870
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a food chain?
ਜਵਾਬ
A linear representation of feeding and energy-transfer relationships.
ਕਾਰਡ 871
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a food web?
ਜਵਾਬ
A network of interconnected feeding relationships in a community.
ਕਾਰਡ 872
ਸਵਾਲ
What is gross primary productivity?
ਜਵਾਬ
The total rate at which producers capture energy into organic matter.
ਕਾਰਡ 873
ਸਵਾਲ
What is net primary productivity?
ਜਵਾਬ
Producer energy stored as new biomass after subtracting producer respiration from gross primary productivity.
ਕਾਰਡ 874
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a linear feeding sequence?
ਜਵਾਬ
a food chain
ਕਾਰਡ 875
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a network of connected food chains?
ਜਵਾਬ
a food web
ਕਾਰਡ 876
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the total producer energy-capture rate?
ਜਵਾਬ
gross primary productivity
ਕਾਰਡ 877
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes producer biomass gain after respiration?
ਜਵਾਬ
net primary productivity
ਕਾਰਡ 878
ਸਵਾਲ
What is ecological productivity?
ਜਵਾਬ
The rate of biomass or energy production per unit area or volume.
ਕਾਰਡ 879
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a biogeochemical cycle?
ਜਵਾਬ
Movement of an element or compound through organisms and the physical environment.
ਕਾਰਡ 880
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is less energy available at each higher trophic level?
ਜਵਾਬ
Not all biomass is eaten or digested, and organisms use energy in respiration, movement, maintenance, and heat loss.
ਕਾਰਡ 881
ਸਵਾਲ
Why does energy flow rather than cycle through an ecosystem?
ਜਵਾਬ
Energy enters mainly as light and ultimately disperses as heat, which ecosystems cannot fully recycle.
ਕਾਰਡ 882
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the rate of biomass or energy production?
ਜਵਾਬ
ecological productivity
ਕਾਰਡ 883
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes cycling of matter through living and nonliving reservoirs?
ਜਵਾਬ
a biogeochemical cycle
ਕਾਰਡ 884
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can matter cycle through an ecosystem?
ਜਵਾਬ
Atoms are conserved and repeatedly transferred among organisms, detritus, soil, water, and atmosphere.
ਕਾਰਡ 885
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is a pyramid of energy always upright?
ਜਵਾਬ
Usable energy decreases between trophic levels because every transfer includes losses.
ਕਾਰਡ 886
ਸਵਾਲ
How are gross and net primary productivity related?
ਜਵਾਬ
NPP = GPP − producer respiration.
ਕਾਰਡ 887
ਸਵਾਲ
How do decomposers support nutrient cycling?
ਜਵਾਬ
They break down dead material and wastes, releasing inorganic nutrients for reuse.
ਕਾਰਡ 888
ਸਵਾਲ
What processes move carbon rapidly between organisms and the atmosphere?
ਜਵਾਬ
Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide; respiration, decomposition, and combustion release it.
ਕਾਰਡ 889
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is nitrogen fixation important?
ਜਵਾਬ
It converts atmospheric nitrogen gas into forms that can enter biological nitrogen metabolism.
ਕਾਰਡ 890
ਸਵਾਲ
How can excess nitrogen or phosphorus cause eutrophication?
ਜਵਾਬ
Nutrient enrichment drives algal growth; decomposition of the biomass consumes oxygen and can create hypoxic water.
ਕਾਰਡ 891
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can a persistent pollutant reach higher concentrations at higher trophic levels?
ਜਵਾਬ
Predators consume contaminant stored in many prey, and the substance is not readily broken down or excreted.
ਕਾਰਡ 892
ਸਵਾਲ
How is trophic-transfer efficiency calculated?
ਜਵਾਬ
Energy or biomass gained by the higher trophic level ÷ energy or biomass available at the lower level × 100%.
ਕਾਰਡ 893
ਸਵਾਲ
What is phenotypic variation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Differences in observable traits among individuals of a population.
ਕਾਰਡ 894
ਸਵਾਲ
What is heritable variation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Trait differences that can be transmitted genetically to offspring.
ਕਾਰਡ 895
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a selection pressure?
ਜਵਾਬ
An environmental factor causing differences in survival or reproduction among phenotypes.
ਕਾਰਡ 896
ਸਵਾਲ
What is relative fitness?
ਜਵਾਬ
An individual's reproductive success compared with others in the population.
ਕਾਰਡ 897
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes observable differences among individuals?
ਜਵਾਬ
phenotypic variation
ਕਾਰਡ 898
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes genetically transmissible trait differences?
ਜਵਾਬ
heritable variation
ਕਾਰਡ 899
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an environmental factor producing differential reproductive success?
ਜਵਾਬ
a selection pressure
ਕਾਰਡ 900
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes reproductive success relative to other individuals?
ਜਵਾਬ
relative fitness
ਕਾਰਡ 901
ਸਵਾਲ
What is directional selection?
ਜਵਾਬ
Selection favoring one extreme phenotype and shifting a population's trait distribution.
ਕਾਰਡ 902
ਸਵਾਲ
What is stabilizing selection?
ਜਵਾਬ
Selection favoring intermediate phenotypes and acting against extremes.
ਕਾਰਡ 903
ਸਵਾਲ
What is disruptive selection?
ਜਵਾਬ
Selection favoring both extreme phenotypes over intermediates.
ਕਾਰਡ 904
ਸਵਾਲ
What is sexual selection?
ਜਵਾਬ
Selection arising from differences in mating success.
ਕਾਰਡ 905
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes selection shifting a trait toward one extreme?
ਜਵਾਬ
directional selection
ਕਾਰਡ 906
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes selection favoring intermediate phenotypes?
ਜਵਾਬ
stabilizing selection
ਕਾਰਡ 907
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes selection favoring both trait extremes?
ਜਵਾਬ
disruptive selection
ਕਾਰਡ 908
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes selection caused by unequal mating success?
ਜਵਾਬ
sexual selection
ਕਾਰਡ 909
ਸਵਾਲ
What conditions are required for natural selection?
ਜਵਾਬ
Individuals vary, some variation is heritable, more offspring are produced than can reproduce, and variants differ in reproductive success.
ਕਾਰਡ 910
ਸਵਾਲ
How does natural selection produce antibiotic-resistant bacterial populations?
ਜਵਾਬ
Existing resistant variants survive treatment and reproduce more than susceptible bacteria.
ਕਾਰਡ 911
ਸਵਾਲ
Does an antibiotic cause bacteria to mutate specifically toward resistance?
ਜਵਾਬ
No. Resistance variants arise without regard to need; treatment selects among them.
ਕਾਰਡ 912
ਸਵਾਲ
Can an individual become genetically adapted through natural selection?
ਜਵਾਬ
No. Selection acts on individuals, but adaptation is a population change across generations.
ਕਾਰਡ 913
ਸਵਾਲ
How does artificial selection differ from natural selection?
ਜਵਾਬ
Humans choose breeding traits in artificial selection; environmental conditions determine differential reproduction in natural selection.
ਕਾਰਡ 914
ਸਵਾਲ
How does natural selection change a population?
ਜਵਾਬ
Individuals with advantageous heritable variants leave more offspring, increasing those alleles over generations.
ਕਾਰਡ 915
ਸਵਾਲ
Why is fitness environment-dependent?
ਜਵਾਬ
A trait that improves reproduction in one environment may be neutral or costly in another.
ਕਾਰਡ 916
ਸਵਾਲ
How does genetic drift differ from natural selection?
ਜਵਾਬ
Drift changes allele frequencies by chance sampling; selection changes them through consistent fitness differences.
ਕਾਰਡ 917
ਸਵਾਲ
What is ecosystem stability?
ਜਵਾਬ
The capacity of an ecosystem to maintain or recover its structure and functions despite disturbance.
ਕਾਰਡ 918
ਸਵਾਲ
What is an ecological tipping point?
ਜਵਾਬ
A threshold beyond which feedbacks can drive a large and difficult-to-reverse ecosystem shift.
ਕਾਰਡ 919
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a mesocosm?
ਜਵਾਬ
A controlled, simplified ecosystem used to investigate ecological processes under more realistic conditions than a small laboratory vessel.
ਕਾਰਡ 920
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a sustainable yield?
ਜਵਾਬ
A harvest rate that can continue without causing long-term resource decline under prevailing conditions.
ਕਾਰਡ 921
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the capacity of an ecosystem to persist or recover after disturbance?
ਜਵਾਬ
ecosystem stability
ਕਾਰਡ 922
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a threshold triggering a major hard-to-reverse ecosystem shift?
ਜਵਾਬ
an ecological tipping point
ਕਾਰਡ 923
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a controlled model ecosystem used for experiments?
ਜਵਾਬ
a mesocosm
ਕਾਰਡ 924
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a harvest rate that avoids long-term depletion?
ਜਵਾਬ
a sustainable yield
ਕਾਰਡ 925
ਸਵਾਲ
What is eutrophication?
ਜਵਾਬ
Nutrient enrichment of water that stimulates excess primary production and can lead to oxygen depletion.
ਕਾਰਡ 926
ਸਵਾਲ
What is biomagnification?
ਜਵਾਬ
Increase in concentration of a persistent pollutant at successively higher trophic levels.
ਕਾਰਡ 927
ਸਵਾਲ
What is rewilding?
ਜਵਾਬ
Ecosystem restoration that rebuilds natural processes, species interactions, and self-sustaining ecological function.
ਕਾਰਡ 928
ਸਵਾਲ
What features can make an ecosystem more stable?
ਜਵਾਬ
Diverse functional roles, connected habitats, intact food webs, nutrient cycling, and balancing feedbacks can help the system resist or recover from disturbance.
ਕਾਰਡ 929
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes nutrient enrichment that can deplete oxygen in water?
ਜਵਾਬ
eutrophication
ਕਾਰਡ 930
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes increasing pollutant concentration up a food chain?
ਜਵਾਬ
biomagnification
ਕਾਰਡ 931
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes restoration focused on natural processes and self-sustaining ecosystems?
ਜਵਾਬ
rewilding
ਕਾਰਡ 932
ਸਵਾਲ
How could extensive Amazon deforestation push the ecosystem toward a tipping point?
ਜਵਾਬ
Loss of trees can reduce rainfall recycling and increase heat and fire, which cause further forest loss and may shift large areas toward a drier state.
ਕਾਰਡ 933
ਸਵਾਲ
What are a benefit and a limitation of using a mesocosm?
ਜਵਾਬ
It allows controlled experiments with interacting organisms, but its simplified scale cannot reproduce every process or long-term influence in a natural ecosystem.
ਕਾਰਡ 934
ਸਵਾਲ
Why should a fishery harvest below an uncertain maximum sustainable yield?
ਜਵਾਬ
Population estimates and recruitment vary, so a safety margin reduces the chance that error or a poor breeding year drives long-term decline.
ਕਾਰਡ 935
ਸਵਾਲ
How can intensive agriculture reduce ecosystem stability?
ਜਵਾਬ
Habitat loss, low crop diversity, soil degradation, heavy water use, pesticides, and nutrient runoff can weaken food webs and ecosystem processes.
ਕਾਰਡ 936
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can microplastic pollution harm aquatic ecosystems?
ਜਵਾਬ
Small persistent particles can be ingested, carry additives or other pollutants, damage feeding and tissues, and move through food webs.
ਕਾਰਡ 937
ਸਵਾਲ
How can rewilding improve ecosystem stability?
ਜਵਾਬ
Restoring native species, habitat connections, and natural disturbance or grazing processes can rebuild feedbacks and allow the ecosystem to maintain itself with less intervention.
ਕਾਰਡ 938
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the greenhouse effect?
ਜਵਾਬ
Warming caused when atmospheric gases absorb and re-emit outgoing infrared radiation.
ਕਾਰਡ 939
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a greenhouse gas?
ਜਵਾਬ
An atmospheric gas that absorbs infrared radiation at wavelengths emitted by Earth.
ਕਾਰਡ 940
ਸਵਾਲ
What is carbon dioxide (CO₂)?
ਜਵਾਬ
A long-lived greenhouse gas increased mainly by fossil-fuel combustion, cement production, and land-use change.
ਕਾਰਡ 941
ਸਵਾਲ
What is methane (CH₄)?
ਜਵਾਬ
A potent greenhouse gas emitted by sources including fossil-fuel systems, livestock, rice cultivation, wetlands, and waste.
ਕਾਰਡ 942
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes warming from absorption and re-emission of infrared radiation?
ਜਵਾਬ
the greenhouse effect
ਕਾਰਡ 943
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes an atmospheric infrared-absorbing gas?
ਜਵਾਬ
a greenhouse gas
ਕਾਰਡ 944
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the long-lived greenhouse gas strongly increased by fossil fuels?
ਜਵਾਬ
carbon dioxide (CO₂)
ਕਾਰਡ 945
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes the potent short-lived greenhouse gas from biological and fossil sources?
ਜਵਾਬ
methane (CH₄)
ਕਾਰਡ 946
ਸਵਾਲ
What is albedo?
ਜਵਾਬ
The fraction of incoming radiation reflected by a surface.
ਕਾਰਡ 947
ਸਵਾਲ
What is a carbon sink?
ਜਵਾਬ
A reservoir that absorbs more carbon than it releases over a specified period.
ਕਾਰਡ 948
ਸਵਾਲ
What is ocean acidification?
ਜਵਾਬ
Decline in seawater pH caused mainly by absorption of human-emitted carbon dioxide.
ਕਾਰਡ 949
ਸਵਾਲ
What is climate change?
ਜਵਾਬ
A persistent change in the statistical patterns of climate over decades or longer.
ਕਾਰਡ 950
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes surface reflectivity?
ਜਵਾਬ
albedo
ਕਾਰਡ 951
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes a reservoir with net carbon uptake?
ਜਵਾਬ
a carbon sink
ਕਾਰਡ 952
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes seawater pH decline from absorbed carbon dioxide?
ਜਵਾਬ
ocean acidification
ਕਾਰਡ 953
ਸਵਾਲ
Which term describes long-term change in climate patterns?
ਜਵਾਬ
climate change
ਕਾਰਡ 954
ਸਵਾਲ
What is the enhanced greenhouse effect?
ਜਵਾਬ
Additional warming caused by human-driven increases in greenhouse-gas concentrations.
ਕਾਰਡ 955
ਸਵਾਲ
How do climate mitigation and climate adaptation differ?
ਜਵਾਬ
Mitigation limits the magnitude of climate change; adaptation reduces harm from changes that occur.
ਕਾਰਡ 956
ਸਵਾਲ
How does increasing greenhouse-gas concentration alter Earth's energy balance?
ਜਵਾਬ
Less outgoing infrared energy initially escapes to space, so the climate warms until energy balance is restored at a higher temperature.
ਕਾਰਡ 957
ਸਵਾਲ
How can melting ice amplify warming?
ਜਵਾਬ
Less bright ice lowers albedo, so darker land or water absorbs more solar energy and causes further warming.
ਕਾਰਡ 958
ਸਵਾਲ
How can climate change alter species distributions?
ਜਵਾਬ
Temperature, rainfall, seasons, sea level, and interactions shift, moving or shrinking areas with suitable conditions.
ਕਾਰਡ 959
ਸਵਾਲ
Why can ocean acidification harm calcifying organisms?
ਜਵਾਬ
Carbonate chemistry changes, reducing availability of carbonate ions used to build calcium-carbonate structures.
ਕਾਰਡ 960
ਸਵਾਲ
How can ecosystem protection contribute to climate mitigation?
ਜਵਾਬ
Protecting forests, wetlands, soils, and coastal habitats can avoid emissions and maintain or increase carbon storage.
960 ਕਾਰਡ
IB Biology SL Flashcards: Complete Course Review
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