IB Biology SL Flashcards: Complete Course Review
Review the current IB Biology Standard Level course with 960 independently written active-recall cards covering all 34 SL topics across molecules, cells, organisms, genetics, evolution, and ecology.
O tej talii
Study the current IB Biology SL course with 960 independently written English flashcards. The deck covers all 34 Standard Level topics through four broad groups: molecules and cells; metabolism and genetics; organisms and systems; and evolution and ecology.
Cards move from essential terms and structures to functions, mechanisms, comparisons, predictions, and compact interpretation prompts. Useful two-way term cards are separated by at least three unrelated cards, while explanatory answers are kept in the direction that supports meaningful recall. Every card carries the root tag ib-bio-sl and exactly one broad group tag.
The order introduces prerequisite ideas before dependent ones and progresses from simpler recall to more demanding reasoning within each topic. The deck is designed for ongoing spaced review. It does not replace data-heavy practice papers, extended-response practice, laboratory work, or the scientific investigation.
Reviewed in 2026 against the current Biology Standard Level course, first assessed in 2025.
Independent, unofficial study aid based on common biological knowledge. Not affiliated with or endorsed by the International Baccalaureate Organization. No copied IB examination questions, mark schemes, or curriculum text are included.
Check the official IB Biology course page for authoritative requirements.
Karty w tej talii
Karta 1
Pytanie
What is water polarity?
Odpowiedź
The unequal sharing of electrons in a water molecule, giving oxygen a partial negative charge and the hydrogens partial positive charges.
Karta 2
Pytanie
What is a hydrogen bond?
Odpowiedź
A weak attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a partially negative atom in another molecule.
Karta 3
Pytanie
What is cohesion?
Odpowiedź
Attraction between molecules of the same substance.
Karta 4
Pytanie
What is adhesion?
Odpowiedź
Attraction between molecules of different substances.
Karta 5
Pytanie
Which term describes unequal charge distribution within a water molecule?
Odpowiedź
water polarity
Karta 6
Pytanie
Which term describes the intermolecular attraction that links neighboring water molecules?
Odpowiedź
a hydrogen bond
Karta 7
Pytanie
Which term describes attraction between molecules of the same substance?
Odpowiedź
cohesion
Karta 8
Pytanie
Which term describes attraction between water and a different material?
Odpowiedź
adhesion
Karta 9
Pytanie
What is a solvent?
Odpowiedź
A liquid that dissolves solutes to form a solution.
Karta 10
Pytanie
What is specific heat capacity?
Odpowiedź
The energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree.
Karta 11
Pytanie
What is latent heat of vaporization?
Odpowiedź
The energy required to vaporize a specified amount of liquid without changing its temperature.
Karta 12
Pytanie
Why does ice float on liquid water?
Odpowiedź
Hydrogen bonds hold water molecules in an open lattice in ice, making ice less dense than liquid water.
Karta 13
Pytanie
Which term describes a liquid that dissolves solutes?
Odpowiedź
a solvent
Karta 14
Pytanie
Which term describes the energy needed to raise a unit mass by one degree?
Odpowiedź
specific heat capacity
Karta 15
Pytanie
Which term describes the energy needed to vaporize a liquid without a temperature change?
Odpowiedź
latent heat of vaporization
Karta 16
Pytanie
Which property of water makes sweating an effective cooling mechanism?
Odpowiedź
Water absorbs substantial energy as it evaporates; the highest-energy molecules leave, carrying heat away from the skin.
Karta 17
Pytanie
Why does water resist rapid temperature change?
Odpowiedź
Many hydrogen bonds must absorb energy before molecular motion increases substantially, giving water a high specific heat capacity.
Karta 18
Pytanie
How do cohesion and adhesion support water transport in narrow tubes?
Odpowiedź
Cohesion keeps water molecules connected, while adhesion helps the water column cling to the tube wall.
Karta 19
Pytanie
How does water participate differently in hydrolysis and condensation?
Odpowiedź
Hydrolysis consumes water to split a bond; condensation forms a bond and releases water.
Karta 20
Pytanie
How does floating ice protect aquatic life in winter?
Odpowiedź
Surface ice insulates the liquid water below, slowing further heat loss and preventing the whole body of water from freezing rapidly.
Karta 21
Pytanie
Why is water effective for transporting many biological solutes?
Odpowiedź
Its polarity allows ions and other polar molecules to become surrounded and dispersed in solution.
Karta 22
Pytanie
Why do nonpolar substances tend to cluster in water?
Odpowiedź
Clustering reduces the nonpolar surface exposed to water, allowing more water molecules to maintain hydrogen-bond interactions.
Karta 23
Pytanie
What is a nucleotide?
Odpowiedź
A nucleic-acid monomer made of a pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
Karta 24
Pytanie
What is a nucleoside?
Odpowiedź
A nitrogenous base joined to a pentose sugar, without a phosphate group.
Karta 25
Pytanie
What is a phosphodiester bond?
Odpowiedź
A covalent bond linking the phosphate of one nucleotide to the sugar of the next nucleotide.
Karta 26
Pytanie
What is DNA?
Odpowiedź
A usually double-stranded nucleic acid that stores hereditary information in its base sequence.
Karta 27
Pytanie
Which term describes a sugar-phosphate-base monomer?
Odpowiedź
a nucleotide
Karta 28
Pytanie
Which term describes a base joined to a sugar but no phosphate?
Odpowiedź
a nucleoside
Karta 29
Pytanie
Which term describes the covalent linkage in a nucleic-acid sugar-phosphate backbone?
Odpowiedź
a phosphodiester bond
Karta 30
Pytanie
Which term describes the nucleic acid that usually stores hereditary information?
Odpowiedź
DNA
Karta 31
Pytanie
What is RNA?
Odpowiedź
A usually single-stranded nucleic acid involved in expressing and regulating genetic information.
Karta 32
Pytanie
What are antiparallel DNA strands?
Odpowiedź
Two DNA strands that run in opposite 5′ to 3′ directions.
Karta 33
Pytanie
What is complementary base pairing?
Odpowiedź
Specific pairing in which adenine pairs with thymine in DNA, or uracil in RNA, and cytosine pairs with guanine.
Karta 34
Pytanie
What is a purine?
Odpowiedź
A nitrogenous base with two fused rings; adenine and guanine are purines.
Karta 35
Pytanie
Which term describes the usually single-stranded nucleic acid used in gene expression?
Odpowiedź
RNA
Karta 36
Pytanie
Which term describes DNA strands running in opposite directions?
Odpowiedź
antiparallel DNA strands
Karta 37
Pytanie
Which term describes specific A–T or A–U and C–G pairing?
Odpowiedź
complementary base pairing
Karta 38
Pytanie
Which term describes a two-ring nitrogenous base?
Odpowiedź
a purine
Karta 39
Pytanie
What is a pyrimidine?
Odpowiedź
A nitrogenous base with one ring; cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyrimidines.
Karta 40
Pytanie
What is a genome?
Odpowiedź
The complete genetic material of an organism or cell.
Karta 41
Pytanie
What three structural features commonly distinguish RNA from DNA?
Odpowiedź
RNA usually contains ribose, uses uracil instead of thymine, and is single-stranded rather than double-stranded.
Karta 42
Pytanie
What determines the base sequence of the second DNA strand?
Odpowiedź
Complementary base-pairing rules determine it: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G.
Karta 43
Pytanie
Which term describes a one-ring nitrogenous base?
Odpowiedź
a pyrimidine
Karta 44
Pytanie
Which term describes the complete genetic material of an organism?
Odpowiedź
a genome
Karta 45
Pytanie
What do the 5′ and 3′ labels of a nucleic-acid strand refer to?
Odpowiedź
They refer to numbered carbon atoms in the pentose sugar and define the strand's chemical direction.
Karta 46
Pytanie
Where is genetic information encoded in DNA?
Odpowiedź
In the order of nitrogenous bases along the DNA strand.
Karta 47
Pytanie
Why is ATP classified as a nucleotide?
Odpowiedź
It contains adenine, ribose, and phosphate groups, the three component types of a nucleotide.
Karta 48
Pytanie
How do mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA contribute to protein synthesis?
Odpowiedź
mRNA carries the coding sequence, tRNA delivers amino acids, and rRNA forms the catalytic and structural core of ribosomes.
Karta 49
Pytanie
How are a gene and a chromosome related?
Odpowiedź
A gene is a DNA sequence with a biological function; a chromosome is one long DNA molecule containing many genes and other sequences.
Karta 50
Pytanie
What happens to double-stranded DNA when it is denatured by heat?
Odpowiedź
Hydrogen bonds between complementary bases break and the two strands separate; the covalent backbones usually remain intact.
Karta 51
Pytanie
Why can each DNA strand serve as a template during replication?
Odpowiedź
Its base sequence determines a complementary sequence through specific base pairing.
Karta 52
Pytanie
In which direction are new nucleic-acid strands synthesized?
Odpowiedź
Nucleotides are added to the 3′ end, so synthesis proceeds 5′ to 3′.
Karta 53
Pytanie
What is a monosaccharide?
Odpowiedź
A single sugar unit that can serve as a carbohydrate monomer.
Karta 54
Pytanie
What is a disaccharide?
Odpowiedź
A carbohydrate formed from two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic bond.
Karta 55
Pytanie
What is a polysaccharide?
Odpowiedź
A polymer made from many monosaccharide units.
Karta 56
Pytanie
What is a glycosidic bond?
Odpowiedź
A covalent bond joining monosaccharides in a carbohydrate.
Karta 57
Pytanie
Which term describes a single sugar unit?
Odpowiedź
a monosaccharide
Karta 58
Pytanie
Which term describes two monosaccharides joined together?
Odpowiedź
a disaccharide
Karta 59
Pytanie
Which term describes a polymer of many sugar units?
Odpowiedź
a polysaccharide
Karta 60
Pytanie
Which term describes the covalent linkage between monosaccharides?
Odpowiedź
a glycosidic bond
Karta 61
Pytanie
What is a triglyceride?
Odpowiedź
A lipid formed from glycerol joined to three fatty acids.
Karta 62
Pytanie
What is a fatty acid?
Odpowiedź
A hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group that can form part of many lipids.
Karta 63
Pytanie
What is a saturated fatty acid?
Odpowiedź
A fatty acid with no carbon-carbon double bonds in its hydrocarbon chain.
Karta 64
Pytanie
What is a phospholipid?
Odpowiedź
An amphipathic lipid with a phosphate-containing hydrophilic head and hydrophobic fatty-acid tails.
Karta 65
Pytanie
Which term describes glycerol joined to three fatty acids?
Odpowiedź
a triglyceride
Karta 66
Pytanie
Which term describes a hydrocarbon chain ending in a carboxyl group?
Odpowiedź
a fatty acid
Karta 67
Pytanie
Which term describes a fatty acid without carbon-carbon double bonds?
Odpowiedź
a saturated fatty acid
Karta 68
Pytanie
Which term describes a lipid with a polar head and nonpolar tails?
Odpowiedź
a phospholipid
Karta 69
Pytanie
How is a glycosidic bond formed between two monosaccharides?
Odpowiedź
A condensation reaction joins them and releases a molecule of water.
Karta 70
Pytanie
How is a polysaccharide broken into smaller sugars?
Odpowiedź
Hydrolysis adds water across glycosidic bonds, splitting the polymer.
Karta 71
Pytanie
Which polysaccharides store glucose in plants and animals?
Odpowiedź
Starch stores glucose in plants; glycogen stores glucose in animals and fungi.
Karta 72
Pytanie
Why is cellulose suitable for plant cell walls?
Odpowiedź
Its straight β-glucose chains hydrogen-bond into strong microfibrils that resist stretching.
Karta 73
Pytanie
Why do lipids store more energy per gram than carbohydrates?
Odpowiedź
Lipids contain more energy-rich carbon-hydrogen bonds and are more reduced.
Karta 74
Pytanie
Why do phospholipids form bilayers in water?
Odpowiedź
Hydrophilic heads interact with water while hydrophobic tails cluster away from water.
Karta 75
Pytanie
Besides energy storage, what are three biological roles of lipids?
Odpowiedź
They form membranes, provide thermal insulation and cushioning, and can act as signaling molecules.
Karta 76
Pytanie
How do cis double bonds affect fatty-acid packing and melting point?
Odpowiedź
They introduce bends that reduce close packing, usually lowering the melting point.
Karta 77
Pytanie
What is an amino acid?
Odpowiedź
A protein monomer with an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, and a variable R group attached to a central carbon.
Karta 78
Pytanie
What is a peptide bond?
Odpowiedź
The covalent bond formed between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another.
Karta 79
Pytanie
What is a polypeptide?
Odpowiedź
A chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
Karta 80
Pytanie
What is protein primary structure?
Odpowiedź
The amino-acid sequence of a polypeptide.
Karta 81
Pytanie
Which term describes a protein monomer with amino, carboxyl, and variable R groups?
Odpowiedź
an amino acid
Karta 82
Pytanie
Which term describes the covalent linkage between amino acids?
Odpowiedź
a peptide bond
Karta 83
Pytanie
Which term describes a chain of peptide-linked amino acids?
Odpowiedź
a polypeptide
Karta 84
Pytanie
Which term describes a protein's amino-acid sequence?
Odpowiedź
protein primary structure
Karta 85
Pytanie
What is protein secondary structure?
Odpowiedź
Local folding such as α-helices and β-sheets stabilized mainly by backbone hydrogen bonds.
Karta 86
Pytanie
What is protein tertiary structure?
Odpowiedź
The overall three-dimensional shape of one polypeptide produced by interactions among R groups and the backbone.
Karta 87
Pytanie
What is protein quaternary structure?
Odpowiedź
The arrangement of multiple polypeptide subunits in one functional protein.
Karta 88
Pytanie
What is protein denaturation?
Odpowiedź
Loss of a protein's normal three-dimensional shape and therefore usually its function.
Karta 89
Pytanie
Which term describes local α-helix and β-sheet folding?
Odpowiedź
protein secondary structure
Karta 90
Pytanie
Which term describes the overall three-dimensional shape of one polypeptide?
Odpowiedź
protein tertiary structure
Karta 91
Pytanie
Which term describes the association of multiple polypeptide subunits?
Odpowiedź
protein quaternary structure
Karta 92
Pytanie
Which term describes loss of a protein's native shape?
Odpowiedź
protein denaturation
Karta 93
Pytanie
What mainly gives different amino acids their different chemical properties?
Odpowiedź
Their variable R groups.
Karta 94
Pytanie
What reaction forms a peptide bond?
Odpowiedź
A condensation reaction releases water as the amino and carboxyl groups join.
Karta 95
Pytanie
Why can high temperature denature a protein?
Odpowiedź
Increased molecular motion disrupts weak interactions that maintain the protein's shape.
Karta 96
Pytanie
Why can extreme pH denature a protein?
Odpowiedź
It changes the charges of R groups and disrupts ionic and hydrogen-bond interactions.
Karta 97
Pytanie
How do fibrous and globular proteins generally differ?
Odpowiedź
Fibrous proteins are elongated and mainly structural; globular proteins are compact and often perform dynamic functions.
Karta 98
Pytanie
Why is three-dimensional shape crucial to protein function?
Odpowiedź
It creates specific binding, catalytic, structural, or interaction surfaces.
Karta 99
Pytanie
Name four broad biological roles of proteins.
Odpowiedź
Catalysis, transport, signaling, defense, movement, and structural support are major roles; any four are sufficient.
Karta 100
Pytanie
How can changing one amino acid alter protein function?
Odpowiedź
The substitution can change R-group interactions, folding, stability, or an active or binding site.
Karta 101
Pytanie
What is cell theory?
Odpowiedź
The principles that living organisms are made of cells, cells are the basic units of life, and cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Karta 102
Pytanie
What is a prokaryotic cell?
Odpowiedź
A cell without a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles.
Karta 103
Pytanie
What is a eukaryotic cell?
Odpowiedź
A cell with DNA enclosed in a nucleus and with membrane-bound organelles.
Karta 104
Pytanie
What is the nucleus?
Odpowiedź
The double-membrane organelle that contains most of a eukaryotic cell's DNA.
Karta 105
Pytanie
Which term describes the principles describing cells as life's basic units?
Odpowiedź
cell theory
Karta 106
Pytanie
Which term describes a cell lacking a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles?
Odpowiedź
a prokaryotic cell
Karta 107
Pytanie
Which term describes a cell with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles?
Odpowiedź
a eukaryotic cell
Karta 108
Pytanie
Which term describes the organelle containing most eukaryotic DNA?
Odpowiedź
the nucleus
Karta 109
Pytanie
What is a ribosome?
Odpowiedź
A molecular complex of rRNA and proteins that synthesizes polypeptides.
Karta 110
Pytanie
What is the cytoplasm?
Odpowiedź
The material inside the plasma membrane but outside the nucleus, including cytosol and organelles.
Karta 111
Pytanie
What is the plasma membrane?
Odpowiedź
The selectively permeable boundary separating a cell from its environment.
Karta 112
Pytanie
What is a cell wall?
Odpowiedź
A rigid extracellular layer that supports and protects cells in plants, fungi, and most prokaryotes.
Karta 113
Pytanie
Which term describes the complex that synthesizes polypeptides?
Odpowiedź
a ribosome
Karta 114
Pytanie
Which term describes cell contents inside the plasma membrane but outside the nucleus?
Odpowiedź
the cytoplasm
Karta 115
Pytanie
Which term describes the selectively permeable cell boundary?
Odpowiedź
the plasma membrane
Karta 116
Pytanie
Which term describes a rigid extracellular support layer?
Odpowiedź
a cell wall
Karta 117
Pytanie
What is the nucleoid?
Odpowiedź
The non-membrane-bound region containing the main chromosome of a prokaryotic cell.
Karta 118
Pytanie
What is the cytoskeleton?
Odpowiedź
A dynamic network of protein filaments involved in cell shape, transport, division, and movement.
Karta 119
Pytanie
What structures are shared by all cells?
Odpowiedź
A plasma membrane, cytoplasm, genetic material, and ribosomes.
Karta 120
Pytanie
Which structures distinguish a typical plant cell from a typical animal cell?
Odpowiedź
A plant cell has a cellulose wall, chloroplasts in photosynthetic tissues, and a large central vacuole; an animal cell lacks these.
Karta 121
Pytanie
Which term describes the prokaryotic chromosome-containing region?
Odpowiedź
the nucleoid
Karta 122
Pytanie
Which term describes the internal network of protein filaments?
Odpowiedź
the cytoskeleton
Karta 123
Pytanie
How is genetic material commonly organized in a prokaryotic cell?
Odpowiedź
The main DNA is usually one circular chromosome in the nucleoid, often accompanied by smaller plasmids.
Karta 124
Pytanie
How is microscope magnification calculated?
Odpowiedź
Magnification = image size ÷ actual size, using the same units.
Karta 125
Pytanie
What does microscope resolution describe?
Odpowiedź
The ability to distinguish two close points as separate.
Karta 126
Pytanie
Arrange these from smallest to largest: ribosome, bacterium, animal cell.
Odpowiedź
Ribosome, bacterium, animal cell.
Karta 127
Pytanie
How does the cytoskeleton support intracellular transport?
Odpowiedź
Motor proteins move vesicles and other cargo along cytoskeletal filaments.
Karta 128
Pytanie
Why does a small cell usually exchange materials more efficiently than a geometrically similar large cell?
Odpowiedź
It has a larger surface-area-to-volume ratio, providing more exchange surface per unit of cell contents.
Karta 129
Pytanie
Why is a cell more than a collection of isolated molecules?
Odpowiedź
Organized interactions among components produce emergent functions such as metabolism, regulation, and reproduction.
Karta 130
Pytanie
What major advantage do membrane-bound organelles give eukaryotic cells?
Odpowiedź
They separate incompatible reactions and create specialized local conditions.
Karta 131
Pytanie
What is a phospholipid bilayer?
Odpowiedź
A double layer of phospholipids with hydrophilic heads facing water and hydrophobic tails facing inward.
Karta 132
Pytanie
What is the fluid mosaic model?
Odpowiedź
A model describing membranes as mobile phospholipids containing a changing mosaic of proteins and other components.
Karta 133
Pytanie
What is an integral membrane protein?
Odpowiedź
A protein embedded in the bilayer, often spanning it.
Karta 134
Pytanie
What is a peripheral membrane protein?
Odpowiedź
A protein attached to a membrane surface rather than embedded in the bilayer.
Karta 135
Pytanie
Which term describes a double phospholipid layer with inward-facing tails?
Odpowiedź
a phospholipid bilayer
Karta 136
Pytanie
Which term describes the model of a mobile lipid layer containing varied proteins?
Odpowiedź
the fluid mosaic model
Karta 137
Pytanie
Which term describes a protein embedded within the lipid bilayer?
Odpowiedź
an integral membrane protein
Karta 138
Pytanie
Which term describes a protein attached to a membrane surface?
Odpowiedź
a peripheral membrane protein
Karta 139
Pytanie
What is membrane cholesterol?
Odpowiedź
An amphipathic lipid that buffers membrane fluidity and reduces permeability in animal cells.
Karta 140
Pytanie
What is a glycoprotein?
Odpowiedź
A protein with an attached carbohydrate chain, often used in recognition, adhesion, or signaling.
Karta 141
Pytanie
What is diffusion?
Odpowiedź
Net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration due to random motion.
Karta 142
Pytanie
What is osmosis?
Odpowiedź
Net movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from higher water potential to lower water potential.
Karta 143
Pytanie
Which term describes the animal-membrane lipid that buffers fluidity?
Odpowiedź
membrane cholesterol
Karta 144
Pytanie
Which term describes a carbohydrate-bearing protein?
Odpowiedź
a glycoprotein
Karta 145
Pytanie
Which term describes net movement down a concentration gradient?
Odpowiedź
diffusion
Karta 146
Pytanie
Which term describes net water movement across a selectively permeable membrane?
Odpowiedź
osmosis
Karta 147
Pytanie
What is facilitated diffusion?
Odpowiedź
Passive movement down a gradient through a membrane channel or carrier protein.
Karta 148
Pytanie
What is active transport?
Odpowiedź
Energy-requiring movement of a substance against its concentration or electrochemical gradient.
Karta 149
Pytanie
Why is the phospholipid bilayer selectively permeable?
Odpowiedź
Its hydrophobic interior allows small nonpolar molecules through more readily than ions and most large or polar molecules.
Karta 150
Pytanie
How do simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion differ?
Odpowiedź
Both are passive, but facilitated diffusion uses specific membrane proteins while simple diffusion passes through the bilayer.
Karta 151
Pytanie
Which term describes passive transport through a channel or carrier?
Odpowiedź
facilitated diffusion
Karta 152
Pytanie
Which term describes energy-dependent transport against a gradient?
Odpowiedź
active transport
Karta 153
Pytanie
How do channel and carrier proteins differ?
Odpowiedź
Channels provide hydrophilic pores; carriers bind solutes and change shape to move them.
Karta 154
Pytanie
How can an ATP-driven pump maintain an ion gradient?
Odpowiedź
It couples ATP hydrolysis to a conformational change that moves ions against their electrochemical gradient.
Karta 155
Pytanie
How does endocytosis move material into a cell?
Odpowiedź
The plasma membrane folds inward and pinches off a vesicle containing the material.
Karta 156
Pytanie
How does exocytosis move material out of a cell?
Odpowiedź
An intracellular vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane and releases its contents outside.
Karta 157
Pytanie
What happens to an animal cell in a strongly hypotonic solution?
Odpowiedź
Water enters by osmosis; without a cell wall, the cell may swell and lyse.
Karta 158
Pytanie
Does molecular movement stop when diffusion reaches equilibrium?
Odpowiedź
No. Molecules continue moving randomly, but there is no net movement between regions.
Karta 159
Pytanie
How does decreasing temperature generally affect membrane fluidity?
Odpowiedź
It reduces phospholipid movement and makes the membrane less fluid.
Karta 160
Pytanie
Why do unsaturated fatty-acid tails increase membrane fluidity?
Odpowiedź
Their cis double-bond bends prevent phospholipids from packing tightly.
Karta 161
Pytanie
What changes increase the rate of simple diffusion across a membrane?
Odpowiedź
A steeper gradient, larger surface area, higher temperature, shorter distance, and greater membrane permeability increase the rate.
Karta 162
Pytanie
What is a mitochondrion?
Odpowiedź
A double-membrane organelle where most aerobic ATP production occurs.
Karta 163
Pytanie
What is a chloroplast?
Odpowiedź
A double-membrane organelle where photosynthesis occurs in plants and algae.
Karta 164
Pytanie
What is rough endoplasmic reticulum?
Odpowiedź
A membrane network bearing ribosomes that synthesizes and begins processing many secreted and membrane proteins.
Karta 165
Pytanie
What is smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
Odpowiedź
A membrane network involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification, and calcium storage.
Karta 166
Pytanie
Which term describes the main organelle of aerobic ATP production?
Odpowiedź
a mitochondrion
Karta 167
Pytanie
Which term describes the photosynthetic organelle of plants and algae?
Odpowiedź
a chloroplast
Karta 168
Pytanie
Which term describes the ribosome-studded membrane network?
Odpowiedź
rough endoplasmic reticulum
Karta 169
Pytanie
Which term describes the membrane network that lacks ribosomes and synthesizes lipids?
Odpowiedź
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Karta 170
Pytanie
What is the Golgi apparatus?
Odpowiedź
Stacked membranes that modify, sort, and package proteins and lipids into vesicles.
Karta 171
Pytanie
What is a lysosome?
Odpowiedź
An acidic enzyme-containing organelle that digests macromolecules and worn cellular components.
Karta 172
Pytanie
What is a vesicle?
Odpowiedź
A small membrane-bound compartment used for transport, storage, or chemical reactions.
Karta 173
Pytanie
What is the central vacuole?
Odpowiedź
A large plant-cell compartment that stores solutes and helps maintain turgor pressure.
Karta 174
Pytanie
Which term describes the organelle that modifies and sorts cellular cargo?
Odpowiedź
the Golgi apparatus
Karta 175
Pytanie
Which term describes the acidic digestive organelle?
Odpowiedź
a lysosome
Karta 176
Pytanie
Which term describes a small membrane-bound transport compartment?
Odpowiedź
a vesicle
Karta 177
Pytanie
Which term describes the large plant compartment that supports turgor?
Odpowiedź
the central vacuole
Karta 178
Pytanie
Why can compartmentalization increase metabolic efficiency?
Odpowiedź
It concentrates enzymes and substrates, maintains suitable local conditions, and separates incompatible reactions.
Karta 179
Pytanie
How do mitochondrial cristae support ATP production?
Odpowiedź
They increase inner-membrane area for electron transport chains and ATP synthase.
Karta 180
Pytanie
Why are chloroplast thylakoids arranged as extensive membranes?
Odpowiedź
They provide a large surface for light-absorbing complexes, electron transport chains, and ATP synthase.
Karta 181
Pytanie
What is the main function of the nucleolus?
Odpowiedź
It produces rRNA and assembles ribosomal subunits.
Karta 182
Pytanie
Trace a secreted protein from synthesis to release.
Odpowiedź
Ribosome on rough ER → ER lumen → transport vesicle → Golgi apparatus → secretory vesicle → plasma membrane → exocytosis.
Karta 183
Pytanie
Why does a lysosome maintain an acidic interior?
Odpowiedź
Its hydrolytic enzymes work best at low pH, and acidity helps confine their activity from the cytosol.
Karta 184
Pytanie
How do the nucleus, ribosomes, ER, and Golgi cooperate in protein production?
Odpowiedź
DNA instructions are transcribed in the nucleus; ribosomes translate them; ER folds or modifies many products; Golgi further modifies and sorts them.
Karta 185
Pytanie
How are transport vesicles directed to the correct target membrane?
Odpowiedź
Specific recognition proteins on vesicles and target membranes interact, allowing selective docking and fusion.
Karta 186
Pytanie
What is cell differentiation?
Odpowiedź
The process by which a cell develops specialized structure and function.
Karta 187
Pytanie
What is a stem cell?
Odpowiedź
An unspecialized cell able to self-renew and produce differentiated cells.
Karta 188
Pytanie
What is gene expression?
Odpowiedź
Use of genetic information to produce a functional RNA or protein product.
Karta 189
Pytanie
What is a tissue?
Odpowiedź
A coordinated group of similar or related cells performing a shared function.
Karta 190
Pytanie
Which term describes development of specialized cell structure and function?
Odpowiedź
cell differentiation
Karta 191
Pytanie
Which term describes an unspecialized self-renewing cell?
Odpowiedź
a stem cell
Karta 192
Pytanie
Which term describes production of a functional product from genetic information?
Odpowiedź
gene expression
Karta 193
Pytanie
Which term describes a group of coordinated cells with a shared function?
Odpowiedź
a tissue
Karta 194
Pytanie
What is an organ?
Odpowiedź
A structure made of multiple tissues working together for particular functions.
Karta 195
Pytanie
What is the organ-system level of biological organization?
Odpowiedź
A group of organs that coordinate to perform major functions for an organism.
Karta 196
Pytanie
What is surface-area-to-volume ratio?
Odpowiedź
The amount of surface area available relative to the volume it must serve.
Karta 197
Pytanie
How can two specialized cells have the same genome but different structures?
Odpowiedź
They express different sets and amounts of genes, producing different proteins and cellular features.
Karta 198
Pytanie
Which term describes a structure composed of multiple tissue types?
Odpowiedź
an organ
Karta 199
Pytanie
Which term describes the level of biological organization formed by coordinated organs?
Odpowiedź
an organ system
Karta 200
Pytanie
Which term describes surface area available per unit volume?
Odpowiedź
surface-area-to-volume ratio
Karta 201
Pytanie
How is a mammalian red blood cell specialized for oxygen transport?
Odpowiedź
Its biconcave shape increases exchange area, it is flexible, and loss of its nucleus leaves more space for hemoglobin.
Karta 202
Pytanie
How is a sperm cell specialized for fertilization?
Odpowiedź
It has a flagellum for movement, many mitochondria for ATP, a haploid nucleus, and an acrosome containing enzymes.
Karta 203
Pytanie
How is a neuron specialized for rapid communication?
Odpowiedź
Long processes carry signals over distance, branching dendrites receive inputs, and synaptic terminals transmit signals to other cells.
Karta 204
Pytanie
How is a root hair cell specialized for mineral and water uptake?
Odpowiedź
Its long projection increases surface area, its thin wall shortens the pathway, and membrane transport proteins take up ions.
Karta 205
Pytanie
How is a palisade mesophyll cell specialized for photosynthesis?
Odpowiedź
It contains many chloroplasts and is positioned near the upper leaf surface where light is strongest.
Karta 206
Pytanie
How do ciliated epithelial cells help protect airways?
Odpowiedź
Their cilia move mucus containing trapped particles and microbes toward the throat.
Karta 207
Pytanie
Why can extreme specialization reduce a cell's independence?
Odpowiedź
Resources and structures are committed to a narrow role, so the cell depends on other cells for functions it no longer performs well.
Karta 208
Pytanie
What is water potential?
Odpowiedź
The potential energy of water per unit volume relative to pure water, used to predict the direction of water movement.
Karta 209
Pytanie
What is solute potential?
Odpowiedź
The negative contribution of dissolved solutes to water potential.
Karta 210
Pytanie
What is pressure potential?
Odpowiedź
The contribution of physical pressure to water potential.
Karta 211
Pytanie
What is turgor pressure?
Odpowiedź
Outward pressure of a plant-cell interior against its cell wall after water uptake.
Karta 212
Pytanie
Which term describes the tendency of water to move relative to pure water?
Odpowiedź
water potential
Karta 213
Pytanie
Which term describes the water-potential component lowered by dissolved solutes?
Odpowiedź
solute potential
Karta 214
Pytanie
Which term describes the water-potential component caused by physical pressure?
Odpowiedź
pressure potential
Karta 215
Pytanie
Which term describes pressure of plant-cell contents against the wall?
Odpowiedź
turgor pressure
Karta 216
Pytanie
What is plasmolysis?
Odpowiedź
Separation of the plasma membrane from the cell wall after a plant cell loses water.
Karta 217
Pytanie
What is a flaccid plant cell?
Odpowiedź
A plant cell with insufficient turgor pressure to be firm.
Karta 218
Pytanie
What is an isotonic condition?
Odpowiedź
A condition in which two solutions have equal effective water potential and no net water movement occurs.
Karta 219
Pytanie
In which direction does water move across a permeable membrane?
Odpowiedź
From higher water potential to lower water potential.
Karta 220
Pytanie
Which term describes membrane separation from the plant cell wall after water loss?
Odpowiedź
plasmolysis
Karta 221
Pytanie
Which term describes a plant cell lacking firm turgor?
Odpowiedź
a flaccid plant cell
Karta 222
Pytanie
Which term describes equal effective water potential across a membrane?
Odpowiedź
an isotonic condition
Karta 223
Pytanie
What is the water potential of pure water at standard pressure?
Odpowiedź
Zero; adding solute makes water potential more negative.
Karta 224
Pytanie
How are water potential, solute potential, and pressure potential related?
Odpowiedź
Water potential equals solute potential plus pressure potential: Ψ = Ψs + Ψp.
Karta 225
Pytanie
Why does a plant cell usually become turgid rather than burst in a hypotonic solution?
Odpowiedź
Water entry raises pressure potential, while the rigid cell wall resists further expansion.
Karta 226
Pytanie
What happens to a plant cell placed in a solution with much lower water potential?
Odpowiedź
Water leaves the cell, turgor falls, and severe loss can cause plasmolysis.
Karta 227
Pytanie
Can two solutions have different solute concentrations but equal water potential?
Odpowiedź
Yes. A difference in pressure potential can offset a difference in solute potential.
Karta 228
Pytanie
What is an enzyme?
Odpowiedź
A biological catalyst that increases reaction rate without being consumed.
Karta 229
Pytanie
What is an active site?
Odpowiedź
The region of an enzyme where substrate binds and catalysis occurs.
Karta 230
Pytanie
What is a substrate?
Odpowiedź
A reactant molecule on which an enzyme acts.
Karta 231
Pytanie
What is activation energy?
Odpowiedź
The minimum energy input needed for a reaction to begin.
Karta 232
Pytanie
Which term describes a biological catalyst?
Odpowiedź
an enzyme
Karta 233
Pytanie
Which term describes the substrate-binding catalytic region of an enzyme?
Odpowiedź
an active site
Karta 234
Pytanie
Which term describes a reactant bound and changed by an enzyme?
Odpowiedź
a substrate
Karta 235
Pytanie
Which term describes the energy barrier that must be overcome for a reaction?
Odpowiedź
activation energy
Karta 236
Pytanie
What is the induced-fit model?
Odpowiedź
The model in which substrate binding changes active-site shape to improve catalytic interactions.
Karta 237
Pytanie
What is enzyme denaturation?
Odpowiedź
Loss of the active three-dimensional shape of an enzyme, usually causing loss of activity.
Karta 238
Pytanie
What is competitive inhibition?
Odpowiedź
Inhibition caused by a molecule competing with substrate for the active site.
Karta 239
Pytanie
What is noncompetitive inhibition?
Odpowiedź
Inhibition caused by binding away from the active site and reducing catalytic function.
Karta 240
Pytanie
Which term describes the model where substrate binding reshapes the active site?
Odpowiedź
the induced-fit model
Karta 241
Pytanie
Which term describes loss of an enzyme's functional shape?
Odpowiedź
enzyme denaturation
Karta 242
Pytanie
Which term describes inhibition by active-site competition?
Odpowiedź
competitive inhibition
Karta 243
Pytanie
Which term describes inhibition by binding outside the active site?
Odpowiedź
noncompetitive inhibition
Karta 244
Pytanie
What is an enzyme optimum?
Odpowiedź
The condition, such as temperature or pH, at which an enzyme's activity is highest.
Karta 245
Pytanie
What is feedback inhibition?
Odpowiedź
Control in which a pathway product inhibits an enzyme acting earlier in the pathway.
Karta 246
Pytanie
How does an enzyme increase reaction rate?
Odpowiedź
It stabilizes the transition state and provides a pathway with lower activation energy.
Karta 247
Pytanie
Why does enzyme activity often rise and then fall as temperature increases?
Odpowiedź
Molecular collisions initially increase, but excessive heat disrupts enzyme shape and denatures the active site.
Karta 248
Pytanie
Which term describes the condition producing maximum enzyme activity?
Odpowiedź
an enzyme optimum
Karta 249
Pytanie
Which term describes pathway control by inhibition from an end product?
Odpowiedź
feedback inhibition
Karta 250
Pytanie
Why does each enzyme have a characteristic pH range?
Odpowiedź
pH changes the ionization of amino-acid side chains, affecting active-site shape and chemical interactions.
Karta 251
Pytanie
Why does increasing substrate concentration eventually stop increasing enzyme rate?
Odpowiedź
At saturation, nearly all active sites are occupied and enzyme concentration limits the maximum rate.
Karta 252
Pytanie
How does increasing enzyme concentration affect rate when substrate is abundant?
Odpowiedź
More active sites are available, so the initial rate increases roughly in proportion to enzyme concentration.
Karta 253
Pytanie
What gives an enzyme substrate specificity?
Odpowiedź
The active site's shape, charge, polarity, and chemical groups complement particular substrates and transition states.
Karta 254
Pytanie
What is one practical advantage of immobilizing an enzyme?
Odpowiedź
The enzyme can be separated from products and reused while conditions around it are controlled.
Karta 255
Pytanie
Does an enzyme change a reaction's equilibrium position?
Odpowiedź
No. It speeds forward and reverse reactions but does not change the equilibrium constant or final equilibrium position.
Karta 256
Pytanie
How can high substrate concentration reduce competitive inhibition?
Odpowiedź
More substrate molecules increase the chance that substrate rather than inhibitor occupies the active site.
Karta 257
Pytanie
Why are metabolic reactions commonly organized into pathways?
Odpowiedź
A sequence of enzyme-controlled steps allows energy changes and intermediates to be controlled and coupled.
Karta 258
Pytanie
What is ATP?
Odpowiedź
A nucleotide that transfers usable energy through coupling of its hydrolysis to cellular processes.
Karta 259
Pytanie
What is cellular respiration?
Odpowiedź
Controlled release of energy from organic molecules to produce ATP.
Karta 260
Pytanie
What is glycolysis?
Odpowiedź
A cytosolic pathway that splits glucose into two pyruvate molecules and yields a small amount of ATP and reduced electron carriers.
Karta 261
Pytanie
What is pyruvate?
Odpowiedź
The three-carbon product of glycolysis that can enter aerobic or anaerobic pathways.
Karta 262
Pytanie
Which term describes the cell's immediate phosphoryl-group energy carrier?
Odpowiedź
ATP
Karta 263
Pytanie
Which term describes controlled ATP-producing breakdown of organic molecules?
Odpowiedź
cellular respiration
Karta 264
Pytanie
Which term describes the cytosolic splitting of glucose into pyruvate?
Odpowiedź
glycolysis
Karta 265
Pytanie
Which term describes the three-carbon product of glycolysis?
Odpowiedź
pyruvate
Karta 266
Pytanie
What is aerobic respiration?
Odpowiedź
Respiration that uses oxygen as the final electron acceptor and produces much more ATP than fermentation.
Karta 267
Pytanie
What is anaerobic metabolism?
Odpowiedź
ATP-producing metabolism that proceeds without oxygen.
Karta 268
Pytanie
What is fermentation?
Odpowiedź
An anaerobic pathway that regenerates oxidized electron carriers so glycolysis can continue.
Karta 269
Pytanie
What is oxidation?
Odpowiedź
Loss of electrons, often accompanied in biology by loss of hydrogen or gain of oxygen.
Karta 270
Pytanie
Which term describes respiration using oxygen as final electron acceptor?
Odpowiedź
aerobic respiration
Karta 271
Pytanie
Which term describes ATP-producing metabolism without oxygen?
Odpowiedź
anaerobic metabolism
Karta 272
Pytanie
Which term describes anaerobic regeneration of electron carriers after glycolysis?
Odpowiedź
fermentation
Karta 273
Pytanie
Which term describes loss of electrons?
Odpowiedź
oxidation
Karta 274
Pytanie
What is reduction?
Odpowiedź
Gain of electrons, often accompanied in biology by gain of hydrogen or loss of oxygen.
Karta 275
Pytanie
What is a reduced electron carrier?
Odpowiedź
A molecule such as NADH that carries high-energy electrons and hydrogen from one reaction to another.
Karta 276
Pytanie
What is chemiosmosis?
Odpowiedź
ATP production driven by ions moving down an electrochemical gradient through ATP synthase.
Karta 277
Pytanie
What is the overall word equation for aerobic respiration of glucose?
Odpowiedź
Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy transferred to ATP and heat.
Karta 278
Pytanie
Which term describes gain of electrons?
Odpowiedź
reduction
Karta 279
Pytanie
Which term describes a molecule carrying high-energy electrons between reactions?
Odpowiedź
a reduced electron carrier
Karta 280
Pytanie
Which term describes ATP production powered by an ion gradient?
Odpowiedź
chemiosmosis
Karta 281
Pytanie
Where does glycolysis occur?
Odpowiedź
In the cytosol.
Karta 282
Pytanie
What major stages of aerobic respiration occur in mitochondria?
Odpowiedź
Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle occur in the matrix; electron transport and chemiosmosis occur at the inner membrane.
Karta 283
Pytanie
What is oxygen's direct role in aerobic respiration?
Odpowiedź
It accepts electrons and hydrogen ions at the end of the electron transport chain, forming water.
Karta 284
Pytanie
Why does aerobic respiration yield much more ATP per glucose than fermentation?
Odpowiedź
It transfers electrons through an electron transport chain and uses oxidative phosphorylation, extracting far more of glucose's energy.
Karta 285
Pytanie
What is the purpose of lactate formation in oxygen-limited animal cells?
Odpowiedź
It regenerates NAD⁺ so glycolysis can continue producing a small amount of ATP.
Karta 286
Pytanie
What products are formed during alcoholic fermentation in yeast?
Odpowiedź
Ethanol and carbon dioxide, while NAD⁺ is regenerated.
Karta 287
Pytanie
Why is some energy released by respiration transferred as heat rather than captured in ATP?
Odpowiedź
Energy conversions are not fully efficient, so part of the chemical energy becomes disordered molecular motion.
Karta 288
Pytanie
What is substrate-level phosphorylation?
Odpowiedź
Direct transfer of a phosphate group from a metabolic intermediate to ADP to form ATP.
Karta 289
Pytanie
How does electron transport lead to ATP synthesis in mitochondria?
Odpowiedź
Electron energy pumps protons across the inner membrane; proton flow back through ATP synthase drives ATP formation.
Karta 290
Pytanie
Why can intense exercise increase lactate production?
Odpowiedź
ATP demand can exceed oxygen delivery and aerobic capacity, so cells regenerate NAD⁺ through lactate formation to sustain glycolysis.
Karta 291
Pytanie
What is photosynthesis?
Odpowiedź
Conversion of light energy into chemical energy used to synthesize organic molecules from carbon dioxide.
Karta 292
Pytanie
What is chlorophyll?
Odpowiedź
A green pigment that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.
Karta 293
Pytanie
What is an absorption spectrum?
Odpowiedź
A graph showing how strongly a pigment absorbs different wavelengths of light.
Karta 294
Pytanie
What is an action spectrum?
Odpowiedź
A graph showing the rate or effectiveness of photosynthesis at different wavelengths.
Karta 295
Pytanie
Which term describes light-driven synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide?
Odpowiedź
photosynthesis
Karta 296
Pytanie
Which term describes the principal green photosynthetic pigment?
Odpowiedź
chlorophyll
Karta 297
Pytanie
Which term describes a graph of pigment absorption versus wavelength?
Odpowiedź
an absorption spectrum
Karta 298
Pytanie
Which term describes a graph of photosynthetic effectiveness versus wavelength?
Odpowiedź
an action spectrum
Karta 299
Pytanie
What is photolysis of water?
Odpowiedź
Light-driven splitting of water that supplies electrons and hydrogen ions and releases oxygen.
Karta 300
Pytanie
What are light-dependent reactions?
Odpowiedź
Photosynthetic reactions that use light to generate ATP and reduced electron carriers while releasing oxygen.
Karta 301
Pytanie
What is the Calvin cycle?
Odpowiedź
A set of chloroplast reactions that uses ATP and reduced electron carriers to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrate precursors.
Karta 302
Pytanie
What is carbon fixation?
Odpowiedź
Incorporation of inorganic carbon dioxide into an organic molecule.
Karta 303
Pytanie
Which term describes light-driven splitting of water?
Odpowiedź
photolysis of water
Karta 304
Pytanie
Which term describes photosynthetic reactions that directly capture light energy?
Odpowiedź
light-dependent reactions
Karta 305
Pytanie
Which term describes the carbon-reduction cycle of photosynthesis?
Odpowiedź
the Calvin cycle
Karta 306
Pytanie
Which term describes incorporation of carbon dioxide into organic matter?
Odpowiedź
carbon fixation
Karta 307
Pytanie
What is the role of a stoma in photosynthesis?
Odpowiedź
A pore in the leaf epidermis that regulates carbon-dioxide entry as well as water loss.
Karta 308
Pytanie
What is a limiting factor of photosynthesis?
Odpowiedź
The environmental factor whose availability currently restricts the photosynthetic rate.
Karta 309
Pytanie
What is the light compensation point?
Odpowiedź
The light intensity at which photosynthetic carbon uptake equals respiratory carbon release.
Karta 310
Pytanie
What is the overall word equation for oxygenic photosynthesis?
Odpowiedź
Carbon dioxide + water → carbohydrate + oxygen, using light energy.
Karta 311
Pytanie
Which term describes the regulated leaf pore controlling carbon-dioxide entry for photosynthesis?
Odpowiedź
a stoma
Karta 312
Pytanie
Which term describes the factor currently restricting photosynthetic rate?
Odpowiedź
a limiting factor
Karta 313
Pytanie
Which term describes the light level where photosynthesis and respiration balance?
Odpowiedź
the light compensation point
Karta 314
Pytanie
Where do the main stages of photosynthesis occur in a chloroplast?
Odpowiedź
Light-dependent reactions occur in thylakoid membranes; carbon-fixation reactions occur in the stroma.
Karta 315
Pytanie
What energy conversion occurs during photosynthesis?
Odpowiedź
Light energy is converted into chemical energy stored first in ATP and reduced carriers and ultimately in organic molecules.
Karta 316
Pytanie
From which reactant does the oxygen released by photosynthesis originate?
Odpowiedź
Water.
Karta 317
Pytanie
What role does RuBisCO play in photosynthesis?
Odpowiedź
It catalyzes fixation of carbon dioxide by adding it to an organic acceptor molecule.
Karta 318
Pytanie
What tradeoff is controlled when stomata open?
Odpowiedź
Opening permits carbon dioxide entry but increases water loss by transpiration.
Karta 319
Pytanie
Name three leaf features that support photosynthesis.
Odpowiedź
A broad surface captures light, a thin structure shortens diffusion paths, and veins supply water and remove sugars; chloroplast-rich cells and stomata also help.
Karta 320
Pytanie
What can a plant do with carbohydrate made by photosynthesis?
Odpowiedź
Use it in respiration, convert it to storage or structural carbohydrates, or use its carbon to make lipids, amino acids, and other molecules.
Karta 321
Pytanie
How are products of the light-dependent reactions used in carbon fixation?
Odpowiedź
ATP supplies energy and NADPH supplies reducing power for conversion of fixed carbon into carbohydrate precursors.
Karta 322
Pytanie
Why does increasing light intensity eventually stop increasing photosynthetic rate?
Odpowiedź
Another factor, such as carbon dioxide supply, temperature, or biochemical capacity, becomes limiting.
Karta 323
Pytanie
How can increasing carbon dioxide concentration affect photosynthetic rate?
Odpowiedź
It can increase the rate until another factor becomes limiting.
Karta 324
Pytanie
Why does photosynthetic rate usually have a temperature optimum?
Odpowiedź
Enzyme-controlled reactions accelerate with temperature up to an optimum, then decline as enzymes and membranes lose effective function.
Karta 325
Pytanie
Why does an action spectrum broadly resemble the combined absorption spectra of photosynthetic pigments?
Odpowiedź
Wavelengths absorbed by the pigments supply more energy for photosynthesis than poorly absorbed wavelengths.
Karta 326
Pytanie
What is semiconservative replication?
Odpowiedź
DNA replication in which each daughter molecule contains one parental strand and one newly synthesized strand.
Karta 327
Pytanie
What is DNA helicase?
Odpowiedź
An enzyme that unwinds the double helix and separates the strands by disrupting base pairing.
Karta 328
Pytanie
What is DNA polymerase?
Odpowiedź
An enzyme that adds nucleotides to a growing DNA strand using a template.
Karta 329
Pytanie
What is a primer?
Odpowiedź
A short nucleic-acid segment providing a free 3′ end from which DNA polymerase can extend.
Karta 330
Pytanie
Which term describes replication producing one old and one new strand per DNA molecule?
Odpowiedź
semiconservative replication
Karta 331
Pytanie
Which term describes the enzyme that separates DNA strands?
Odpowiedź
DNA helicase
Karta 332
Pytanie
Which term describes the enzyme that builds DNA from a template?
Odpowiedź
DNA polymerase
Karta 333
Pytanie
Which term describes the short segment providing a starting 3′ end?
Odpowiedź
a primer
Karta 334
Pytanie
What is the leading strand?
Odpowiedź
The new DNA strand synthesized continuously toward the replication fork.
Karta 335
Pytanie
What is the lagging strand?
Odpowiedź
The new DNA strand synthesized discontinuously away from the replication fork.
Karta 336
Pytanie
What is an Okazaki fragment?
Odpowiedź
A short DNA segment synthesized on the lagging strand.
Karta 337
Pytanie
What is DNA ligase?
Odpowiedź
An enzyme that seals breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone, joining DNA fragments.
Karta 338
Pytanie
Which term describes the continuously synthesized daughter strand?
Odpowiedź
the leading strand
Karta 339
Pytanie
Which term describes the discontinuously synthesized daughter strand?
Odpowiedź
the lagging strand
Karta 340
Pytanie
Which term describes a short newly made segment of lagging-strand DNA?
Odpowiedź
an Okazaki fragment
Karta 341
Pytanie
Which term describes the enzyme that joins DNA fragments by sealing the backbone?
Odpowiedź
DNA ligase
Karta 342
Pytanie
How does complementary base pairing ensure accurate DNA copying?
Odpowiedź
Each template base specifies the nucleotide added opposite it: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G.
Karta 343
Pytanie
Why does DNA polymerase synthesize DNA only 5′ to 3′?
Odpowiedź
It can add a nucleotide only to the free 3′ hydroxyl group of the growing strand.
Karta 344
Pytanie
When in the cell cycle is nuclear DNA replicated?
Odpowiedź
During S phase of interphase, before cell division.
Karta 345
Pytanie
How can a replication error become a permanent mutation?
Odpowiedź
If it escapes proofreading and repair, the altered sequence can be copied in later cell generations.
Karta 346
Pytanie
Why are leading and lagging strands synthesized differently?
Odpowiedź
The templates are antiparallel while DNA polymerase works only 5′ to 3′, forcing one strand to be made discontinuously.
Karta 347
Pytanie
How do proofreading and repair reduce replication errors?
Odpowiedź
Incorrectly paired nucleotides are recognized, removed, and replaced before or after replication continues.
Karta 348
Pytanie
What three repeating steps amplify DNA in PCR?
Odpowiedź
Strand separation by heating, primer annealing during cooling, and DNA extension by a heat-stable polymerase.
Karta 349
Pytanie
What determines which DNA region PCR amplifies?
Odpowiedź
The sequences and positions of the two primers flanking the target region.
Karta 350
Pytanie
What is transcription?
Odpowiedź
Synthesis of RNA from a DNA template.
Karta 351
Pytanie
What is RNA polymerase?
Odpowiedź
The enzyme that synthesizes RNA complementary to a DNA template strand.
Karta 352
Pytanie
What is messenger RNA?
Odpowiedź
RNA carrying a coding sequence from DNA to ribosomes.
Karta 353
Pytanie
What is a codon?
Odpowiedź
A three-base sequence in mRNA that specifies an amino acid or a translation signal.
Karta 354
Pytanie
Which term describes RNA synthesis from DNA?
Odpowiedź
transcription
Karta 355
Pytanie
Which term describes the enzyme that builds RNA from a DNA template?
Odpowiedź
RNA polymerase
Karta 356
Pytanie
Which term describes RNA that carries coding information to ribosomes?
Odpowiedź
messenger RNA
Karta 357
Pytanie
Which term describes a three-base mRNA unit?
Odpowiedź
a codon
Karta 358
Pytanie
What is translation?
Odpowiedź
Synthesis of a polypeptide using the codon sequence of mRNA.
Karta 359
Pytanie
What does a ribosome do during translation?
Odpowiedź
It reads mRNA and catalyzes polypeptide synthesis using its rRNA-protein machinery.
Karta 360
Pytanie
What is transfer RNA?
Odpowiedź
RNA that carries a specific amino acid and pairs its anticodon with an mRNA codon.
Karta 361
Pytanie
What is an anticodon?
Odpowiedź
A three-base tRNA sequence complementary to an mRNA codon.
Karta 362
Pytanie
Which term describes polypeptide synthesis from an mRNA sequence?
Odpowiedź
translation
Karta 363
Pytanie
Which term describes the translation complex that reads mRNA and builds a polypeptide?
Odpowiedź
a ribosome
Karta 364
Pytanie
Which term describes the adaptor RNA carrying an amino acid?
Odpowiedź
transfer RNA
Karta 365
Pytanie
Which term describes the tRNA triplet that pairs with a codon?
Odpowiedź
an anticodon
Karta 366
Pytanie
What is the genetic code?
Odpowiedź
The set of rules relating mRNA codons to amino acids and translation signals.
Karta 367
Pytanie
What are start and stop codons?
Odpowiedź
mRNA signals that establish the reading frame or terminate translation.
Karta 368
Pytanie
Where do transcription and translation occur in a eukaryotic cell?
Odpowiedź
Transcription occurs in the nucleus; translation occurs on ribosomes in the cytoplasm or on rough ER.
Karta 369
Pytanie
How is an mRNA sequence related to its DNA template strand?
Odpowiedź
It is complementary and antiparallel, with uracil in RNA opposite adenine in DNA.
Karta 370
Pytanie
Which term describes the codon-to-amino-acid rule set?
Odpowiedź
the genetic code
Karta 371
Pytanie
Which term describes codons that begin or end translation?
Odpowiedź
start and stop codons
Karta 372
Pytanie
What reaction does the ribosome catalyze as a polypeptide grows?
Odpowiedź
Formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids.
Karta 373
Pytanie
What does it mean that the genetic code is degenerate?
Odpowiedź
Most amino acids are specified by more than one codon.
Karta 374
Pytanie
How can one mRNA produce many polypeptides quickly?
Odpowiedź
Multiple ribosomes can translate the same mRNA simultaneously as a polyribosome.
Karta 375
Pytanie
Why is translation not the final step in producing many functional proteins?
Odpowiedź
The polypeptide must fold and may undergo cleavage, chemical modification, or assembly with other subunits.
Karta 376
Pytanie
How does mRNA compare with the DNA coding strand?
Odpowiedź
It has the same base sequence except that RNA contains uracil where DNA contains thymine.
Karta 377
Pytanie
What happens during eukaryotic RNA splicing?
Odpowiedź
Introns are removed and exons are joined to form mature mRNA.
Karta 378
Pytanie
Why must codons be read in the correct reading frame?
Odpowiedź
Changing the starting position changes every downstream triplet and therefore the amino-acid sequence.
Karta 379
Pytanie
How is the correct amino acid matched to each mRNA codon?
Odpowiedź
Each tRNA is charged with a particular amino acid, and its anticodon pairs with the complementary codon.
Karta 380
Pytanie
How can a base substitution affect a protein?
Odpowiedź
It may be silent, change one amino acid, create a stop codon, or sometimes alter RNA processing.
Karta 381
Pytanie
What is a mutation?
Odpowiedź
A change in a DNA sequence or chromosome structure that can be passed to daughter cells.
Karta 382
Pytanie
What is a base substitution?
Odpowiedź
Replacement of one nucleotide pair by another.
Karta 383
Pytanie
What is an insertion mutation?
Odpowiedź
Addition of one or more nucleotides to a DNA sequence.
Karta 384
Pytanie
What is a deletion mutation?
Odpowiedź
Loss of one or more nucleotides from a DNA sequence.
Karta 385
Pytanie
Which term describes a lasting DNA-sequence or chromosome change?
Odpowiedź
a mutation
Karta 386
Pytanie
Which term describes replacement of one DNA base pair?
Odpowiedź
a base substitution
Karta 387
Pytanie
Which term describes addition of nucleotides to DNA?
Odpowiedź
an insertion mutation
Karta 388
Pytanie
Which term describes loss of nucleotides from DNA?
Odpowiedź
a deletion mutation
Karta 389
Pytanie
What is a frameshift mutation?
Odpowiedź
A coding-sequence insertion or deletion not divisible by three that changes downstream codon grouping.
Karta 390
Pytanie
What is a silent mutation?
Odpowiedź
A sequence change that does not alter the encoded amino acid.
Karta 391
Pytanie
What is a missense mutation?
Odpowiedź
A mutation that changes a codon so a different amino acid is incorporated.
Karta 392
Pytanie
What is a nonsense mutation?
Odpowiedź
A mutation that changes an amino-acid codon into a stop codon.
Karta 393
Pytanie
Which term describes a mutation that shifts downstream codon grouping?
Odpowiedź
a frameshift mutation
Karta 394
Pytanie
Which term describes a coding change that leaves the amino acid unchanged?
Odpowiedź
a silent mutation
Karta 395
Pytanie
Which term describes a mutation causing one amino-acid substitution?
Odpowiedź
a missense mutation
Karta 396
Pytanie
Which term describes a mutation creating a premature stop codon?
Odpowiedź
a nonsense mutation
Karta 397
Pytanie
How do germline and somatic mutations differ in inheritance?
Odpowiedź
Germline mutations can enter gametes and be inherited; somatic mutations affect a cell lineage within the individual.
Karta 398
Pytanie
What can cause mutations?
Odpowiedź
Replication errors, spontaneous chemical changes, radiation, and mutagenic chemicals can alter DNA.
Karta 399
Pytanie
How does DNA repair protect genome stability?
Odpowiedź
Repair systems detect damaged or mismatched DNA and restore the correct structure or sequence when possible.
Karta 400
Pytanie
Why are mutations essential to evolution despite often being neutral or harmful?
Odpowiedź
They create new alleles, providing the heritable variation on which selection and drift act.
Karta 401
Pytanie
What is the basic role of guide RNA in CRISPR gene editing?
Odpowiedź
It directs a nuclease to a complementary DNA sequence.
Karta 402
Pytanie
Why can the same type of DNA mutation have effects ranging from none to severe?
Odpowiedź
Effects depend on location, genetic-code redundancy, protein role, cell type, and environmental context.
Karta 403
Pytanie
How can accumulated mutations contribute to cancer?
Odpowiedź
Mutations can activate growth-promoting genes or disable genes that restrain division, repair DNA, or trigger cell death.
Karta 404
Pytanie
Why can repairing a CRISPR-induced DNA break produce different editing outcomes?
Odpowiedź
Different cellular repair pathways may disrupt the target sequence or use a supplied template for a specific change.
Karta 405
Pytanie
What is an off-target effect in gene editing?
Odpowiedź
An unintended DNA change at a site sufficiently similar to the intended target.
Karta 406
Pytanie
Why does heritable human genome editing raise additional ethical concerns?
Odpowiedź
Changes could pass to future generations who cannot consent, with uncertain long-term biological and social effects.
Karta 407
Pytanie
What is the cell cycle?
Odpowiedź
The ordered sequence of cell growth, DNA replication, nuclear division, and cell division.
Karta 408
Pytanie
What is interphase?
Odpowiedź
The period of growth, normal activity, and DNA replication between nuclear divisions.
Karta 409
Pytanie
What is mitosis?
Odpowiedź
Nuclear division that usually produces genetically equivalent daughter nuclei.
Karta 410
Pytanie
What is cytokinesis?
Odpowiedź
Division of the cytoplasm to form separate daughter cells.
Karta 411
Pytanie
Which term describes the ordered sequence from one cell division to the next?
Odpowiedź
the cell cycle
Karta 412
Pytanie
Which term describes the growth and DNA-replication period between divisions?
Odpowiedź
interphase
Karta 413
Pytanie
Which term describes division producing genetically equivalent nuclei?
Odpowiedź
mitosis
Karta 414
Pytanie
Which term describes physical division of the cytoplasm?
Odpowiedź
cytokinesis
Karta 415
Pytanie
What is a chromosome?
Odpowiedź
One DNA molecule packaged with associated proteins.
Karta 416
Pytanie
What are sister chromatids?
Odpowiedź
The two replicated copies of a chromosome joined before separation.
Karta 417
Pytanie
What is a centromere?
Odpowiedź
The chromosome region that holds sister chromatids together and organizes kinetochore attachment.
Karta 418
Pytanie
What is the mitotic spindle?
Odpowiedź
A microtubule system that attaches to and separates chromosomes during cell division.
Karta 419
Pytanie
Which term describes a protein-packaged DNA molecule?
Odpowiedź
a chromosome
Karta 420
Pytanie
Which term describes joined replicated copies of one chromosome?
Odpowiedź
sister chromatids
Karta 421
Pytanie
Which term describes the chromosome region joining sister chromatids?
Odpowiedź
a centromere
Karta 422
Pytanie
Which term describes the chromosome-separating microtubule system?
Odpowiedź
the mitotic spindle
Karta 423
Pytanie
What is the basic sequence of mitosis?
Odpowiedź
Chromosomes condense, align at the cell equator, sister chromatids separate to opposite poles, and new nuclei form.
Karta 424
Pytanie
Why must DNA replicate before mitosis?
Odpowiedź
Each chromosome must have two copies so each daughter nucleus can receive a complete genome.
Karta 425
Pytanie
Why are daughter cells from mitosis usually genetically similar?
Odpowiedź
Replicated sister chromatids are separated so each daughter receives one copy of every chromosome.
Karta 426
Pytanie
What are major roles of mitosis in multicellular organisms?
Odpowiedź
Growth, tissue repair, cell replacement, and some forms of asexual reproduction.
Karta 427
Pytanie
How do homologous chromosomes differ from sister chromatids?
Odpowiedź
Homologs carry the same gene loci but may have different alleles; sister chromatids are replicated copies of one chromosome.
Karta 428
Pytanie
What key outcome distinguishes mitosis from meiosis?
Odpowiedź
Mitosis usually preserves chromosome number and similarity; meiosis halves chromosome number and generates genetically varied haploid cells.
Karta 429
Pytanie
How does cytokinesis commonly occur in animal cells?
Odpowiedź
A contractile ring tightens the plasma membrane into a cleavage furrow.
Karta 430
Pytanie
How does cytokinesis commonly occur in plant cells?
Odpowiedź
Vesicles fuse at the center to form a cell plate that develops into new membranes and a cell wall.
Karta 431
Pytanie
What is the purpose of cell-cycle checkpoints?
Odpowiedź
They delay progression when conditions are unsuitable or DNA and chromosome attachment are defective.
Karta 432
Pytanie
How is loss of cell-cycle control related to cancer?
Odpowiedź
Cells can divide despite damage or growth restraints, producing an expanding abnormal clone.
Karta 433
Pytanie
What is a gene?
Odpowiedź
A DNA sequence that contributes to a functional product and influences a characteristic or cellular process.
Karta 434
Pytanie
What is an allele?
Odpowiedź
One of the alternative DNA-sequence forms at a gene locus.
Karta 435
Pytanie
What is a gene locus?
Odpowiedź
The physical position of a gene on a chromosome.
Karta 436
Pytanie
What is a genotype?
Odpowiedź
The allele combination of an organism at one or more loci.
Karta 437
Pytanie
Which term describes a functional DNA sequence?
Odpowiedź
a gene
Karta 438
Pytanie
Which term describes an alternative form of a gene?
Odpowiedź
an allele
Karta 439
Pytanie
Which term describes a gene's chromosome position?
Odpowiedź
a gene locus
Karta 440
Pytanie
Which term describes an organism's allele combination?
Odpowiedź
a genotype
Karta 441
Pytanie
What is a phenotype?
Odpowiedź
An observable or measurable trait produced by genotype and environment.
Karta 442
Pytanie
What is homozygous?
Odpowiedź
Having two identical alleles at a diploid locus.
Karta 443
Pytanie
What is heterozygous?
Odpowiedź
Having two different alleles at a diploid locus.
Karta 444
Pytanie
What is a dominant allele?
Odpowiedź
An allele expressed in the phenotype of a heterozygote under a specified inheritance model.
Karta 445
Pytanie
Which term describes an observable trait resulting from genes and environment?
Odpowiedź
a phenotype
Karta 446
Pytanie
Which term describes having two identical alleles at a locus?
Odpowiedź
homozygous
Karta 447
Pytanie
Which term describes having two different alleles at a locus?
Odpowiedź
heterozygous
Karta 448
Pytanie
Which term describes an allele expressed in a heterozygote?
Odpowiedź
a dominant allele
Karta 449
Pytanie
What is a recessive allele?
Odpowiedź
An allele whose phenotype is masked by a dominant allele in a heterozygote.
Karta 450
Pytanie
What is a genetic carrier?
Odpowiedź
An unaffected heterozygote who can transmit a recessive disease allele.
Karta 451
Pytanie
What is a test cross?
Odpowiedź
A cross with a homozygous recessive individual used to infer an unknown dominant phenotype's genotype.
Karta 452
Pytanie
What is a pedigree?
Odpowiedź
A diagram showing biological relationships and occurrence of a trait across generations.
Karta 453
Pytanie
Which term describes an allele masked in a heterozygote?
Odpowiedź
a recessive allele
Karta 454
Pytanie
Which term describes an unaffected heterozygote carrying a recessive disease allele?
Odpowiedź
a genetic carrier
Karta 455
Pytanie
Which term describes a cross used to reveal an unknown dominant genotype?
Odpowiedź
a test cross
Karta 456
Pytanie
Which term describes a family diagram tracking a trait across generations?
Odpowiedź
a pedigree
Karta 457
Pytanie
What does allele segregation mean during gamete formation?
Odpowiedź
The two alleles at a diploid locus separate so each gamete receives one.
Karta 458
Pytanie
What does a Punnett square predict?
Odpowiedź
Expected genotype and phenotype probabilities from specified parental gametes, not guaranteed family outcomes.
Karta 459
Pytanie
What phenotypic ratio is expected from Aa × Aa with complete dominance?
Odpowiedź
Approximately 3 dominant phenotype : 1 recessive phenotype.
Karta 460
Pytanie
What genotypic ratio is expected from Aa × Aa?
Odpowiedź
1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa.
Karta 461
Pytanie
What happens in codominance?
Odpowiedź
Both alleles contribute distinctly to the heterozygous phenotype.
Karta 462
Pytanie
What happens in incomplete dominance?
Odpowiedź
The heterozygote has a phenotype intermediate between the two homozygotes.
Karta 463
Pytanie
How can environment affect phenotype without changing genotype?
Odpowiedź
Conditions alter development, physiology, or gene expression, changing the observed trait.
Karta 464
Pytanie
What is the ultimate source of new alleles?
Odpowiedź
Mutation.
Karta 465
Pytanie
Why are X-linked recessive traits more common in XY individuals?
Odpowiedź
They have only one X chromosome, so one recessive allele on it can determine the phenotype.
Karta 466
Pytanie
When is the product rule used in genetic probability?
Odpowiedź
For independent events that must both occur; multiply their probabilities.
Karta 467
Pytanie
When is the sum rule used in genetic probability?
Odpowiedź
For mutually exclusive alternative outcomes; add their probabilities.
Karta 468
Pytanie
Why do polygenic traits often show continuous variation?
Odpowiedź
Many loci contribute small effects, creating many possible genotypes and phenotypes, often further influenced by environment.
Karta 469
Pytanie
What pedigree pattern can suggest an autosomal recessive trait?
Odpowiedź
Unaffected parents can have affected children, and all sexes are affected at similar frequencies.
Karta 470
Pytanie
What is a species?
Odpowiedź
A group of organisms whose members can potentially interbreed and produce fertile offspring under natural conditions.
Karta 471
Pytanie
What is binomial nomenclature?
Odpowiedź
The two-part scientific naming system using a genus name followed by a specific epithet.
Karta 472
Pytanie
What is taxonomy?
Odpowiedź
The naming and classification of organisms.
Karta 473
Pytanie
What is a biological domain?
Odpowiedź
The broadest commonly used taxonomic rank, separating Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
Karta 474
Pytanie
Which term describes a naturally interbreeding group producing fertile offspring?
Odpowiedź
a species
Karta 475
Pytanie
Which term describes the genus-plus-specific-epithet naming system?
Odpowiedź
binomial nomenclature
Karta 476
Pytanie
Which term describes the science of naming and classifying organisms?
Odpowiedź
taxonomy
Karta 477
Pytanie
Which term describes the broadest common taxonomic rank?
Odpowiedź
a biological domain
Karta 478
Pytanie
What is biodiversity?
Odpowiedź
Variation of life at genetic, species, and ecosystem levels.
Karta 479
Pytanie
What is an autotroph?
Odpowiedź
An organism that makes organic compounds from inorganic carbon using light or chemical energy.
Karta 480
Pytanie
What is a heterotroph?
Odpowiedź
An organism that obtains organic carbon by consuming other organisms or their products.
960 kart
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Karta 481
Pytanie
What is a unicellular organism?
Odpowiedź
An organism consisting of one cell that carries out all essential life functions.
Karta 482
Pytanie
Which term describes variation of life across genes, species, and ecosystems?
Odpowiedź
biodiversity
Karta 483
Pytanie
Which term describes an organism that builds organic matter from inorganic carbon?
Odpowiedź
an autotroph
Karta 484
Pytanie
Which term describes an organism obtaining organic carbon from other organisms?
Odpowiedź
a heterotroph
Karta 485
Pytanie
Which term describes an organism made of one cell?
Odpowiedź
a unicellular organism
Karta 486
Pytanie
What is a multicellular organism?
Odpowiedź
An organism composed of many cooperating cells, often with specialized cell types.
Karta 487
Pytanie
What is a karyotype?
Odpowiedź
An ordered display of chromosomes used to examine their number and large-scale structure.
Karta 488
Pytanie
What broad feature distinguishes both Bacteria and Archaea from Eukarya?
Odpowiedź
Their cells lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
Karta 489
Pytanie
What features characterize most plant cells?
Odpowiedź
Cellulose walls, chloroplasts in photosynthetic tissues, and large vacuoles are typical features.
Karta 490
Pytanie
Which term describes an organism made of many cooperating cells?
Odpowiedź
a multicellular organism
Karta 491
Pytanie
Which term describes an ordered display of an individual's chromosomes?
Odpowiedź
a karyotype
Karta 492
Pytanie
How do fungi obtain nutrients?
Odpowiedź
They secrete digestive enzymes and absorb soluble products; their cells usually have chitin-containing walls.
Karta 493
Pytanie
What distinguishes animal nutrition and cell structure?
Odpowiedź
Animals ingest organic material, and their cells lack cell walls and chloroplasts.
Karta 494
Pytanie
Why are scientific names useful across languages?
Odpowiedź
A standardized name identifies the same organism internationally and reduces ambiguity from local common names.
Karta 495
Pytanie
Why can genetic diversity improve a population's resilience?
Odpowiedź
More heritable variation increases the chance that some individuals tolerate new diseases or environmental changes.
Karta 496
Pytanie
What does ecosystem diversity measure?
Odpowiedź
The variety of habitats, communities, and ecological processes within a region.
Karta 497
Pytanie
Why are Archaea classified separately from Bacteria?
Odpowiedź
They differ in genetic sequences, membrane chemistry, cell-wall composition, and aspects of molecular machinery.
Karta 498
Pytanie
Why is the biological species concept difficult to apply to fossils or asexual organisms?
Odpowiedź
Their ability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring cannot be tested in the usual way.
Karta 499
Pytanie
Does a larger chromosome number necessarily mean a more complex organism?
Odpowiedź
No. Chromosome number varies through fusion, fission, and duplication and does not directly measure biological complexity.
Karta 500
Pytanie
Does genome size reliably predict organismal complexity?
Odpowiedź
No. Large amounts of noncoding and repeated DNA make genome size a poor simple measure of complexity.
Karta 501
Pytanie
What evidence can be combined when classifying organisms?
Odpowiedź
Molecular sequences, cell structure, anatomy, development, physiology, and reproductive evidence can all contribute.
Karta 502
Pytanie
What is gas exchange?
Odpowiedź
Diffusion of respiratory gases between an organism and its environment or transport fluid.
Karta 503
Pytanie
What is ventilation?
Odpowiedź
Bulk movement of air or water over a gas-exchange surface.
Karta 504
Pytanie
What is an alveolus?
Odpowiedź
A microscopic air sac in the lung where gases diffuse between air and blood.
Karta 505
Pytanie
What is pulmonary surfactant?
Odpowiedź
A substance lining alveoli that lowers surface tension and reduces collapse.
Karta 506
Pytanie
Which term describes diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide across a respiratory surface?
Odpowiedź
gas exchange
Karta 507
Pytanie
Which term describes bulk movement of respiratory medium over an exchange surface?
Odpowiedź
ventilation
Karta 508
Pytanie
Which term describes a microscopic lung air sac?
Odpowiedź
an alveolus
Karta 509
Pytanie
Which term describes the alveolar lining that lowers surface tension?
Odpowiedź
pulmonary surfactant
Karta 510
Pytanie
What is the diaphragm?
Odpowiedź
A sheet of skeletal muscle whose contraction increases thoracic volume during inhalation.
Karta 511
Pytanie
What is tidal volume?
Odpowiedź
The volume of air moved in or out during a normal breath.
Karta 512
Pytanie
What is a stoma?
Odpowiedź
A regulated epidermal pore through which gases diffuse in leaves.
Karta 513
Pytanie
What is countercurrent exchange?
Odpowiedź
Exchange between fluids moving in opposite directions, maintaining a gradient along most of the surface.
Karta 514
Pytanie
Which term describes the muscle sheet that expands the thorax during inhalation?
Odpowiedź
the diaphragm
Karta 515
Pytanie
Which term describes air volume moved in one normal breath?
Odpowiedź
tidal volume
Karta 516
Pytanie
Which term describes a regulated leaf gas-exchange pore?
Odpowiedź
a stoma
Karta 517
Pytanie
Which term describes opposite fluid flow that maintains an exchange gradient?
Odpowiedź
countercurrent exchange
Karta 518
Pytanie
What features make an efficient gas-exchange surface?
Odpowiedź
Large area, short diffusion distance, permeability, and maintained concentration gradients.
Karta 519
Pytanie
How is a steep oxygen gradient maintained across alveoli?
Odpowiedź
Ventilation replenishes alveolar oxygen and blood flow removes absorbed oxygen.
Karta 520
Pytanie
How does diaphragm contraction cause inhalation?
Odpowiedź
Thoracic volume increases, lung pressure falls below atmospheric pressure, and air flows inward.
Karta 521
Pytanie
What drives quiet exhalation?
Odpowiedź
The diaphragm relaxes and elastic recoil reduces thoracic and lung volume, raising pressure and pushing air out.
Karta 522
Pytanie
Why do ventilation rate and depth increase during exercise?
Odpowiedź
They increase oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal to support higher cellular respiration.
Karta 523
Pytanie
How does leaf structure shorten the pathway for carbon dioxide diffusion?
Odpowiedź
Stomata open into air spaces, and mesophyll cells expose moist surfaces close to those spaces.
Karta 524
Pytanie
Why does carbon dioxide diffuse from tissues into blood?
Odpowiedź
Respiring cells produce carbon dioxide, making its partial pressure higher in tissues than in incoming blood.
Karta 525
Pytanie
How does countercurrent flow improve oxygen uptake at fish gills?
Odpowiedź
Blood continually meets water with a higher oxygen concentration, preserving diffusion along the lamella.
Karta 526
Pytanie
Why does closing stomata reduce both water loss and photosynthesis?
Odpowiedź
It limits water-vapor diffusion out but also restricts carbon dioxide diffusion into the leaf.
Karta 527
Pytanie
What is a circulatory system?
Odpowiedź
A transport system that moves a fluid carrying gases, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and heat through an organism.
Karta 528
Pytanie
What is an artery?
Odpowiedź
A blood vessel carrying blood away from the heart under relatively high pressure.
Karta 529
Pytanie
What is a vein?
Odpowiedź
A blood vessel carrying blood toward the heart, usually with low pressure and often valves.
Karta 530
Pytanie
What is a capillary?
Odpowiedź
A microscopic thin-walled vessel where substances exchange between blood and tissues.
Karta 531
Pytanie
Which term describes an internal fluid-transport system?
Odpowiedź
a circulatory system
Karta 532
Pytanie
Which term describes a vessel carrying blood away from the heart?
Odpowiedź
an artery
Karta 533
Pytanie
Which term describes a vessel carrying blood toward the heart?
Odpowiedź
a vein
Karta 534
Pytanie
Which term describes a microscopic exchange blood vessel?
Odpowiedź
a capillary
Karta 535
Pytanie
What is the cardiac cycle?
Odpowiedź
The repeating sequence of heart-chamber contraction and relaxation that pumps blood.
Karta 536
Pytanie
What is hemoglobin?
Odpowiedź
An iron-containing protein in red blood cells that binds oxygen reversibly.
Karta 537
Pytanie
What is xylem?
Odpowiedź
Plant vascular tissue that transports water and mineral ions and provides structural support.
Karta 538
Pytanie
What is phloem?
Odpowiedź
Plant vascular tissue that transports sucrose and other organic solutes between sources and sinks.
Karta 539
Pytanie
Which term describes the repeating pumping sequence of the heart?
Odpowiedź
the cardiac cycle
Karta 540
Pytanie
Which term describes the oxygen-carrying protein of red blood cells?
Odpowiedź
hemoglobin
Karta 541
Pytanie
Which term describes plant tissue carrying water and minerals?
Odpowiedź
xylem
Karta 542
Pytanie
Which term describes plant tissue carrying organic solutes?
Odpowiedź
phloem
Karta 543
Pytanie
What is transpiration?
Odpowiedź
Loss of water vapor from plant surfaces, mainly through stomata.
Karta 544
Pytanie
What is phloem translocation?
Odpowiedź
Movement of organic solutes through phloem from sources to sinks.
Karta 545
Pytanie
How do a source and a sink differ in plant transport?
Odpowiedź
A source releases assimilates to phloem; a sink removes them for use or storage.
Karta 546
Pytanie
What makes human circulation a double circulation?
Odpowiedź
Blood passes through the heart once in the pulmonary circuit and again in the systemic circuit during one complete journey.
Karta 547
Pytanie
Which term describes water-vapor loss from plant surfaces?
Odpowiedź
transpiration
Karta 548
Pytanie
Which term describes movement of organic solutes through phloem?
Odpowiedź
phloem translocation
Karta 549
Pytanie
Which term describes the exporting and importing regions of phloem transport?
Odpowiedź
source and sink
Karta 550
Pytanie
How is an artery adapted to high pressure?
Odpowiedź
It has thick elastic and muscular walls and a relatively narrow lumen.
Karta 551
Pytanie
How is a vein adapted to return low-pressure blood?
Odpowiedź
It has a wide lumen, thinner walls, and valves that reduce backflow.
Karta 552
Pytanie
How does capillary structure support exchange?
Odpowiedź
One-cell-thick walls give a short diffusion distance; extensive branching gives a large total area; narrow lumens slow flow and keep blood close to tissues.
Karta 553
Pytanie
What determines whether a heart valve opens or closes?
Odpowiedź
Pressure differences across the valve.
Karta 554
Pytanie
Trace water from soil to the atmosphere through a plant.
Odpowiedź
Soil → root hairs → root tissues → xylem → leaf mesophyll → leaf air spaces → stomata → atmosphere.
Karta 555
Pytanie
Why may root cells use active transport to absorb mineral ions?
Odpowiedź
Ion concentrations can be lower in soil than in root cells, so uptake must occur against a gradient.
Karta 556
Pytanie
Why do large multicellular organisms need bulk transport systems?
Odpowiedź
Their low surface-area-to-volume ratio and long diffusion distances make diffusion alone too slow for whole-body supply.
Karta 557
Pytanie
Why does hemoglobin unload more oxygen in actively respiring tissues?
Odpowiedź
Lower oxygen and often higher carbon dioxide and acidity reduce hemoglobin's oxygen affinity.
Karta 558
Pytanie
How does transpiration pull water upward through xylem?
Odpowiedź
Evaporation lowers leaf water potential and creates tension; cohesion transmits the pull through the continuous water column.
Karta 559
Pytanie
How do wind and low humidity generally affect transpiration?
Odpowiedź
Both maintain a steep water-vapor gradient outside the leaf, increasing transpiration if stomata remain open.
Karta 560
Pytanie
What drives mass flow in phloem?
Odpowiedź
Sugar loading draws in water and raises pressure at a source; unloading lowers pressure at a sink, producing bulk flow.
Karta 561
Pytanie
Can the same plant organ be a source at one time and a sink at another?
Odpowiedź
Yes. A storage organ may import sugars while filling and export them later during growth or germination.
Karta 562
Pytanie
What is a neuron?
Odpowiedź
An excitable cell specialized to receive, process, and transmit information.
Karta 563
Pytanie
What is a sensory neuron?
Odpowiedź
A neuron carrying information from a receptor toward the central nervous system.
Karta 564
Pytanie
What is a motor neuron?
Odpowiedź
A neuron carrying commands from the central nervous system to an effector.
Karta 565
Pytanie
What is the resting potential?
Odpowiedź
The voltage difference across an unstimulated neuron's membrane, with the inside negative relative to outside.
Karta 566
Pytanie
Which term describes an excitable information-transmitting cell?
Odpowiedź
a neuron
Karta 567
Pytanie
Which term describes a neuron carrying receptor information to the CNS?
Odpowiedź
a sensory neuron
Karta 568
Pytanie
Which term describes a neuron carrying CNS commands to an effector?
Odpowiedź
a motor neuron
Karta 569
Pytanie
Which term describes the negative-inside voltage of an unstimulated neuron?
Odpowiedź
the resting potential
Karta 570
Pytanie
What is an action potential?
Odpowiedź
A brief, self-propagating reversal and restoration of membrane potential along an excitable membrane.
Karta 571
Pytanie
What is depolarization?
Odpowiedź
A change that makes membrane potential less negative, and during an action potential often positive.
Karta 572
Pytanie
What is repolarization?
Odpowiedź
Return of membrane potential toward its resting negative value after depolarization.
Karta 573
Pytanie
What is a synapse?
Odpowiedź
A junction where one cell communicates with another cell.
Karta 574
Pytanie
Which term describes a brief propagating change in neuron membrane voltage?
Odpowiedź
an action potential
Karta 575
Pytanie
Which term describes a membrane-voltage change toward a less negative value?
Odpowiedź
depolarization
Karta 576
Pytanie
Which term describes return toward resting membrane voltage?
Odpowiedź
repolarization
Karta 577
Pytanie
Which term describes a communication junction between cells?
Odpowiedź
a synapse
Karta 578
Pytanie
What is a neurotransmitter?
Odpowiedź
A chemical released by a neuron that changes the activity of a target cell.
Karta 579
Pytanie
What is the refractory period?
Odpowiedź
A brief period after an action potential when another is impossible or requires a stronger stimulus.
Karta 580
Pytanie
What is myelin?
Odpowiedź
An insulating sheath around some axons that speeds impulse conduction.
Karta 581
Pytanie
What happens when membrane depolarization reaches threshold?
Odpowiedź
Voltage-gated channels trigger the self-amplifying events of an action potential.
Karta 582
Pytanie
Which term describes a neuron-released signaling chemical?
Odpowiedź
a neurotransmitter
Karta 583
Pytanie
Which term describes the recovery interval after an action potential?
Odpowiedź
the refractory period
Karta 584
Pytanie
Which term describes the insulating axon sheath?
Odpowiedź
myelin
Karta 585
Pytanie
What does the all-or-none principle mean for an action potential?
Odpowiedź
Once threshold is reached, the action potential has a characteristic size; stronger stimuli increase frequency, not its amplitude.
Karta 586
Pytanie
How does myelin increase conduction speed?
Odpowiedź
Depolarizing current travels rapidly beneath myelin and action potentials regenerate mainly at gaps in the sheath.
Karta 587
Pytanie
What is the basic sequence at a chemical synapse?
Odpowiedź
An impulse triggers neurotransmitter release; it diffuses across the cleft, binds receptors, and alters the postsynaptic cell.
Karta 588
Pytanie
Why can a reflex response be rapid?
Odpowiedź
A short neural pathway produces an automatic response without waiting for conscious processing.
Karta 589
Pytanie
What is sensory transduction?
Odpowiedź
Conversion of a physical or chemical stimulus into an electrical signal in a receptor cell.
Karta 590
Pytanie
How does an action potential propagate along an axon?
Odpowiedź
Local current depolarizes the next membrane region to threshold, opening voltage-gated channels there.
Karta 591
Pytanie
Why does an action potential normally travel in one direction along an axon?
Odpowiedź
The membrane just behind it is refractory and cannot immediately fire again.
Karta 592
Pytanie
How is neurotransmitter action ended?
Odpowiedź
The transmitter is removed by enzymatic breakdown, reuptake, or diffusion away.
Karta 593
Pytanie
What is sensory adaptation?
Odpowiedź
Reduced receptor or neural response during a constant, unchanging stimulus.
Karta 594
Pytanie
How can a drug alter synaptic transmission?
Odpowiedź
It may mimic or block a transmitter, change its release, or change its removal from the synaptic cleft.
Karta 595
Pytanie
What is an organ system?
Odpowiedź
A group of organs coordinating to perform major functions for an organism.
Karta 596
Pytanie
What is a hormone?
Odpowiedź
A signaling molecule released into transport fluid and acting on target cells with suitable receptors.
Karta 597
Pytanie
What is an endocrine gland?
Odpowiedź
A gland that secretes hormones into extracellular fluid and blood rather than through a duct.
Karta 598
Pytanie
What is a hormone target cell?
Odpowiedź
A cell able to respond because it has the appropriate receptor.
Karta 599
Pytanie
Which term describes a coordinated group of organs?
Odpowiedź
an organ system
Karta 600
Pytanie
Which term describes a long-distance chemical messenger carried in body fluid?
Odpowiedź
a hormone
Karta 601
Pytanie
Which term describes a ductless hormone-secreting gland?
Odpowiedź
an endocrine gland
Karta 602
Pytanie
Which term describes a cell with a receptor for a particular hormone?
Odpowiedź
a hormone target cell
Karta 603
Pytanie
What is digestion?
Odpowiedź
Mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into molecules small enough to absorb.
Karta 604
Pytanie
What is absorption?
Odpowiedź
Movement of digested nutrients across an exchange surface into blood or lymph.
Karta 605
Pytanie
What is peristalsis?
Odpowiedź
Coordinated waves of smooth-muscle contraction that move material through the digestive tract.
Karta 606
Pytanie
What is an intestinal villus?
Odpowiedź
A finger-like projection increasing the absorptive surface of the small intestine.
Karta 607
Pytanie
Which term describes breakdown of food into absorbable molecules?
Odpowiedź
digestion
Karta 608
Pytanie
Which term describes movement of digested nutrients into transport fluids?
Odpowiedź
absorption
Karta 609
Pytanie
Which term describes wave-like gut contractions moving contents?
Odpowiedź
peristalsis
Karta 610
Pytanie
Which term describes a finger-like intestinal absorption projection?
Odpowiedź
an intestinal villus
Karta 611
Pytanie
What is excretion?
Odpowiedź
Removal of metabolic waste products from the body.
Karta 612
Pytanie
What is a nephron?
Odpowiedź
The microscopic functional unit of the kidney that filters blood and modifies filtrate into urine.
Karta 613
Pytanie
What is ultrafiltration?
Odpowiedź
Pressure-driven filtration of small molecules from blood into a kidney capsule while cells and most proteins remain in blood.
Karta 614
Pytanie
What is selective reabsorption?
Odpowiedź
Recovery of useful substances and regulated amounts of water and ions from kidney filtrate into blood.
Karta 615
Pytanie
Which term describes removal of metabolic wastes?
Odpowiedź
excretion
Karta 616
Pytanie
Which term describes the kidney's microscopic functional unit?
Odpowiedź
a nephron
Karta 617
Pytanie
Which term describes pressure filtration at the start of a nephron?
Odpowiedź
ultrafiltration
Karta 618
Pytanie
Which term describes return of useful substances from kidney filtrate to blood?
Odpowiedź
selective reabsorption
Karta 619
Pytanie
What is skeletal muscle?
Odpowiedź
Striated voluntary muscle attached to the skeleton and used for movement and posture.
Karta 620
Pytanie
What is an antagonistic muscle pair?
Odpowiedź
Two muscles producing opposite movements at a joint because muscles pull but do not push.
Karta 621
Pytanie
How do nervous and endocrine signaling generally differ?
Odpowiedź
Neural signals are rapid and targeted; hormonal signals are usually slower, longer-lasting, and distributed through body fluids.
Karta 622
Pytanie
Why does a circulating hormone affect only some cells?
Odpowiedź
Only target cells express receptors that recognize the hormone and activate a response.
Karta 623
Pytanie
Which term describes voluntary striated muscle that moves the skeleton?
Odpowiedź
skeletal muscle
Karta 624
Pytanie
Which term describes two muscles producing opposite joint movements?
Odpowiedź
an antagonistic muscle pair
Karta 625
Pytanie
What is the final absorbable product of most dietary carbohydrate digestion?
Odpowiedź
Monosaccharides, especially glucose.
Karta 626
Pytanie
What are the main absorbable products of protein digestion?
Odpowiedź
Amino acids and small peptides that are completed to amino acids during absorption.
Karta 627
Pytanie
How is the small intestine adapted for absorption?
Odpowiedź
Folds, villi, and microvilli increase area; a thin epithelium, rich blood supply, and lymph vessels support transport.
Karta 628
Pytanie
Name three integrative roles of the liver.
Odpowiedź
It processes absorbed nutrients, regulates blood chemistry, detoxifies substances, produces bile, and converts ammonia to urea; any three are sufficient.
Karta 629
Pytanie
Why are blood cells and most plasma proteins absent from normal kidney filtrate?
Odpowiedź
They are too large to cross the filtration barrier.
Karta 630
Pytanie
How do muscles move a bone at a joint?
Odpowiedź
Contraction shortens the muscle, pulling through a tendon on the bone.
Karta 631
Pytanie
Why are antagonistic muscles needed at many joints?
Odpowiedź
A muscle can pull in one direction but cannot push itself back, so an opposing muscle produces the reverse movement.
Karta 632
Pytanie
Why must organ systems be integrated rather than acting independently?
Odpowiedź
Each system depends on materials, signals, waste removal, and stable conditions supplied by other systems.
Karta 633
Pytanie
Why do many absorbed lipids enter lymph before blood?
Odpowiedź
Intestinal cells package them into lipoprotein particles too large to enter ordinary blood capillaries directly.
Karta 634
Pytanie
Why is glucose normally absent from final urine?
Odpowiedź
Filtered glucose is selectively reabsorbed into blood when transporter capacity is not exceeded.
Karta 635
Pytanie
How do respiratory, circulatory, and muscular systems cooperate during exercise?
Odpowiedź
Ventilation supplies oxygen, circulation transports gases and fuels, and muscles use ATP while returning carbon dioxide, heat, and metabolites.
Karta 636
Pytanie
How do liver, circulation, and kidneys cooperate in nitrogen-waste removal?
Odpowiedź
The liver converts toxic ammonia to urea, blood carries urea, and kidneys filter and excrete it.
Karta 637
Pytanie
What is a pathogen?
Odpowiedź
A biological agent capable of causing disease.
Karta 638
Pytanie
What is an antigen?
Odpowiedź
A molecule recognized specifically by an antibody or lymphocyte receptor.
Karta 639
Pytanie
What is innate immunity?
Odpowiedź
Rapid, nonspecific defense mechanisms present without prior exposure.
Karta 640
Pytanie
What is adaptive immunity?
Odpowiedź
Specific defense that develops through lymphocyte activation and can form memory.
Karta 641
Pytanie
Which term describes a disease-causing biological agent?
Odpowiedź
a pathogen
Karta 642
Pytanie
Which term describes a molecule specifically recognized by adaptive immune receptors?
Odpowiedź
an antigen
Karta 643
Pytanie
Which term describes rapid nonspecific immune defense?
Odpowiedź
innate immunity
Karta 644
Pytanie
Which term describes specific immune defense capable of memory?
Odpowiedź
adaptive immunity
Karta 645
Pytanie
What is a phagocyte?
Odpowiedź
A cell that engulfs and digests microbes, particles, or damaged cells.
Karta 646
Pytanie
What is a lymphocyte?
Odpowiedź
An adaptive immune cell with receptors specific to particular antigens.
Karta 647
Pytanie
What is an antibody?
Odpowiedź
A secreted immunoglobulin that binds a specific antigen.
Karta 648
Pytanie
What is a B lymphocyte?
Odpowiedź
A lymphocyte that can differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells and memory cells.
Karta 649
Pytanie
Which term describes an engulfing immune cell?
Odpowiedź
a phagocyte
Karta 650
Pytanie
Which term describes an antigen-specific adaptive immune cell?
Odpowiedź
a lymphocyte
Karta 651
Pytanie
Which term describes a secreted antigen-binding immunoglobulin?
Odpowiedź
an antibody
Karta 652
Pytanie
Which term describes the lymphocyte lineage that produces antibody-secreting cells?
Odpowiedź
a B lymphocyte
Karta 653
Pytanie
What is a helper T cell?
Odpowiedź
A lymphocyte that coordinates immune responses through contact signals and cytokines.
Karta 654
Pytanie
What is an immune memory cell?
Odpowiedź
A long-lived lymphocyte that responds rapidly after re-exposure to its antigen.
Karta 655
Pytanie
What is vaccination?
Odpowiedź
Deliberate exposure to a safe form or component of an antigen to generate protective immune memory.
Karta 656
Pytanie
What is an antibiotic?
Odpowiedź
A substance that kills bacteria or inhibits their growth at clinically useful doses.
Karta 657
Pytanie
Which term describes the T cell that coordinates other immune cells?
Odpowiedź
a helper T cell
Karta 658
Pytanie
Which term describes a long-lived lymphocyte enabling faster re-exposure response?
Odpowiedź
an immune memory cell
Karta 659
Pytanie
Which term describes safe antigen exposure used to create immune memory?
Odpowiedź
vaccination
Karta 660
Pytanie
Which term describes a drug acting against bacteria?
Odpowiedź
an antibiotic
Karta 661
Pytanie
What are examples of first-line defenses against pathogens?
Odpowiedź
Intact skin, mucus, cilia, antimicrobial secretions, stomach acidity, and competing microbiota.
Karta 662
Pytanie
How does inflammation help defend damaged tissue?
Odpowiedź
It increases local blood flow and vessel permeability and recruits immune cells and defensive molecules.
Karta 663
Pytanie
What happens during phagocytosis?
Odpowiedź
A cell surrounds a particle in a vesicle, then fuses it with digestive compartments to destroy or process it.
Karta 664
Pytanie
How can antibodies help eliminate a pathogen?
Odpowiedź
They can neutralize targets, block attachment, clump particles, and mark them for phagocytosis or complement attack.
Karta 665
Pytanie
Why can a vaccine generate protection without causing the full disease?
Odpowiedź
It presents antigen in a weakened, inactivated, partial, or encoded form that stimulates immunity with much lower risk.
Karta 666
Pytanie
Why do antibiotics not treat viral infections?
Odpowiedź
Viruses lack the bacterial structures and independent metabolic processes targeted by antibiotics.
Karta 667
Pytanie
What determines the antigen specificity of a lymphocyte?
Odpowiedź
The molecular shape and chemistry of its unique surface receptor.
Karta 668
Pytanie
What is clonal selection?
Odpowiedź
An antigen activates lymphocytes with matching receptors, causing them to proliferate and differentiate.
Karta 669
Pytanie
Why is a secondary adaptive immune response usually faster and stronger?
Odpowiedź
Memory cells are more numerous and activate rapidly, producing effective cells and antibodies sooner.
Karta 670
Pytanie
How can high vaccination coverage protect some unvaccinated people?
Odpowiedź
Reduced transmission makes encounters with infectious individuals less likely, though protection is incomplete and pathogen-dependent.
Karta 671
Pytanie
How does antibiotic use select for resistant bacteria?
Odpowiedź
Susceptible bacteria are removed while resistant variants survive and reproduce, increasing resistance-allele frequency.
Karta 672
Pytanie
Why can unnecessary or incomplete antibiotic exposure promote resistance?
Odpowiedź
It creates selection favoring resistant cells while potentially leaving surviving bacteria to multiply and spread.
Karta 673
Pytanie
What is an allergy?
Odpowiedź
An immune response to a normally harmless antigen that causes tissue symptoms or damage.
Karta 674
Pytanie
What is asexual reproduction?
Odpowiedź
Production of offspring from one parent without fusion of gametes.
Karta 675
Pytanie
What is sexual reproduction?
Odpowiedź
Production of offspring involving fusion of haploid gametes.
Karta 676
Pytanie
What is a gamete?
Odpowiedź
A haploid reproductive cell able to fuse with another gamete.
Karta 677
Pytanie
What is fertilization?
Odpowiedź
Fusion of gamete nuclei to form a diploid zygote.
Karta 678
Pytanie
Which term describes reproduction without gamete fusion?
Odpowiedź
asexual reproduction
Karta 679
Pytanie
Which term describes reproduction involving gamete fusion?
Odpowiedź
sexual reproduction
Karta 680
Pytanie
Which term describes a haploid reproductive cell?
Odpowiedź
a gamete
Karta 681
Pytanie
Which term describes fusion of gamete nuclei?
Odpowiedź
fertilization
Karta 682
Pytanie
What is a zygote?
Odpowiedź
The diploid cell formed by fertilization.
Karta 683
Pytanie
What is meiosis?
Odpowiedź
Cell division that halves chromosome number and usually produces genetically varied haploid cells.
Karta 684
Pytanie
What is ovulation?
Odpowiedź
Release of a secondary oocyte from an ovary.
Karta 685
Pytanie
What is implantation?
Odpowiedź
Attachment and embedding of an early embryo in the uterine lining.
Karta 686
Pytanie
Which term describes the first diploid cell after fertilization?
Odpowiedź
a zygote
Karta 687
Pytanie
Which term describes division producing varied haploid cells?
Odpowiedź
meiosis
Karta 688
Pytanie
Which term describes release of an oocyte from an ovary?
Odpowiedź
ovulation
Karta 689
Pytanie
Which term describes embedding of an early embryo in the uterine lining?
Odpowiedź
implantation
Karta 690
Pytanie
What is the placenta?
Odpowiedź
A temporary organ that exchanges materials between maternal and fetal blood supplies without normally mixing them directly.
Karta 691
Pytanie
What is pollination?
Odpowiedź
Transfer of pollen from an anther to a receptive stigma.
Karta 692
Pytanie
Why does sexual reproduction usually produce more genetic variation than asexual reproduction?
Odpowiedź
Meiosis reshuffles alleles and random fertilization combines genomes from two gametes.
Karta 693
Pytanie
Why must gametes be haploid?
Odpowiedź
Fusion of two haploid gametes restores the diploid chromosome number instead of doubling it each generation.
Karta 694
Pytanie
Which term describes the maternal-fetal exchange organ?
Odpowiedź
the placenta
Karta 695
Pytanie
Which term describes transfer of pollen to a stigma?
Odpowiedź
pollination
Karta 696
Pytanie
What are major roles of FSH in the ovarian cycle?
Odpowiedź
It stimulates follicle development and supports estrogen secretion.
Karta 697
Pytanie
What is a major role of the mid-cycle LH surge?
Odpowiedź
It triggers ovulation and formation of the corpus luteum.
Karta 698
Pytanie
How does estrogen contribute to the uterine cycle?
Odpowiedź
It promotes repair and thickening of the uterine lining after menstruation.
Karta 699
Pytanie
How does progesterone contribute to the uterine cycle?
Odpowiedź
It maintains a thick, secretory uterine lining after ovulation.
Karta 700
Pytanie
Where does human fertilization usually occur?
Odpowiedź
In an oviduct, before the early embryo reaches the uterus.
Karta 701
Pytanie
What happens after compatible pollen reaches a flower's stigma?
Odpowiedź
A pollen tube grows toward an ovule and delivers male nuclei for fertilization.
Karta 702
Pytanie
Why does menstruation usually begin if pregnancy does not occur?
Odpowiedź
The corpus luteum degenerates, progesterone and estrogen fall, and the uterine lining is no longer maintained.
Karta 703
Pytanie
What substances commonly cross the placenta between mother and fetus?
Odpowiedź
Oxygen and nutrients move toward the fetus; carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes move toward the mother.
Karta 704
Pytanie
How can contraception prevent pregnancy in different ways?
Odpowiedź
Methods can inhibit ovulation, block sperm from reaching an egg, prevent fertilization, or permanently interrupt the reproductive ducts.
Karta 705
Pytanie
What is homeostasis?
Odpowiedź
Maintenance of internal conditions within ranges compatible with normal function despite change.
Karta 706
Pytanie
What is negative feedback?
Odpowiedź
Control in which a deviation triggers responses that oppose the original change.
Karta 707
Pytanie
What is a set point?
Odpowiedź
The target value or range around which a regulated variable is maintained.
Karta 708
Pytanie
What is a homeostatic receptor?
Odpowiedź
A sensor that detects a change in a regulated variable.
Karta 709
Pytanie
Which term describes maintenance of a stable functional internal environment?
Odpowiedź
homeostasis
Karta 710
Pytanie
Which term describes feedback that counteracts a deviation?
Odpowiedź
negative feedback
Karta 711
Pytanie
Which term describes the target around which a variable is regulated?
Odpowiedź
a set point
Karta 712
Pytanie
Which term describes the sensor in a feedback system?
Odpowiedź
a homeostatic receptor
Karta 713
Pytanie
What is a control center?
Odpowiedź
The component that compares information with a target and coordinates a response.
Karta 714
Pytanie
What is an effector?
Odpowiedź
A muscle, gland, or other component that carries out a control response.
Karta 715
Pytanie
What is thermoregulation?
Odpowiedź
Control of body temperature within a functional range.
Karta 716
Pytanie
What is vasodilation?
Odpowiedź
Widening of blood vessels, often increasing blood flow near the skin.
Karta 717
Pytanie
Which term describes the feedback component that evaluates input and directs a response?
Odpowiedź
a control center
Karta 718
Pytanie
Which term describes the component that executes a physiological response?
Odpowiedź
an effector
Karta 719
Pytanie
Which term describes physiological regulation of body temperature?
Odpowiedź
thermoregulation
Karta 720
Pytanie
Which term describes widening of blood vessels?
Odpowiedź
vasodilation
Karta 721
Pytanie
What is vasoconstriction?
Odpowiedź
Narrowing of blood vessels, often reducing blood flow near the skin.
Karta 722
Pytanie
What is insulin?
Odpowiedź
A pancreatic hormone that lowers elevated blood glucose by promoting uptake and storage.
Karta 723
Pytanie
What is glucagon?
Odpowiedź
A pancreatic hormone that raises low blood glucose by promoting release of stored fuel.
Karta 724
Pytanie
What are the main components of a homeostatic feedback loop?
Odpowiedź
A regulated variable, receptor, control center, effectors, and responses that alter the variable.
Karta 725
Pytanie
Which term describes narrowing of blood vessels?
Odpowiedź
vasoconstriction
Karta 726
Pytanie
Which term describes the pancreatic hormone that lowers blood glucose?
Odpowiedź
insulin
Karta 727
Pytanie
Which term describes the pancreatic hormone that raises blood glucose?
Odpowiedź
glucagon
Karta 728
Pytanie
What happens when blood glucose rises after a meal?
Odpowiedź
Insulin secretion increases, promoting glucose uptake and storage so blood glucose falls toward its normal range.
Karta 729
Pytanie
What happens when blood glucose falls during fasting?
Odpowiedź
Glucagon secretion increases, promoting glycogen breakdown and glucose release by the liver.
Karta 730
Pytanie
How does sweating cool the body?
Odpowiedź
Evaporation of water from skin transfers heat to the environment.
Karta 731
Pytanie
How does skin vasodilation increase heat loss?
Odpowiedź
It brings more warm blood near the surface, increasing transfer of heat to the environment.
Karta 732
Pytanie
How does shivering warm the body?
Odpowiedź
Rapid involuntary muscle contractions increase respiration and heat production.
Karta 733
Pytanie
Does homeostasis keep internal conditions perfectly constant?
Odpowiedź
No. Variables fluctuate within controlled ranges around target values.
Karta 734
Pytanie
How does ADH help conserve water?
Odpowiedź
It increases water permeability in kidney collecting ducts, so more water is reabsorbed and urine becomes more concentrated.
Karta 735
Pytanie
How should ADH secretion change during dehydration?
Odpowiedź
It should increase, promoting greater water reabsorption by the kidneys.
Karta 736
Pytanie
How does positive feedback differ from negative feedback?
Odpowiedź
Positive feedback amplifies a change until an endpoint; negative feedback opposes a change and stabilizes a variable.
Karta 737
Pytanie
Why can diabetes mellitus cause persistently high blood glucose?
Odpowiedź
Insulin production may be insufficient or target cells may respond poorly to insulin.
Karta 738
Pytanie
What is biological evolution?
Odpowiedź
Change in heritable characteristics or allele frequencies of a population across generations.
Karta 739
Pytanie
What is allele frequency?
Odpowiedź
The proportion of gene copies in a population represented by a particular allele.
Karta 740
Pytanie
What is microevolution?
Odpowiedź
Evolutionary change in allele frequencies within populations over relatively short timescales.
Karta 741
Pytanie
What is speciation?
Odpowiedź
Evolutionary formation of new species.
Karta 742
Pytanie
Which term describes change in a population's heritable composition across generations?
Odpowiedź
biological evolution
Karta 743
Pytanie
Which term describes the proportion of a population's gene copies that are one allele?
Odpowiedź
allele frequency
Karta 744
Pytanie
Which term describes short-timescale allele-frequency change within populations?
Odpowiedź
microevolution
Karta 745
Pytanie
Which term describes formation of new species?
Odpowiedź
speciation
Karta 746
Pytanie
What is reproductive isolation?
Odpowiedź
Barriers that prevent or greatly reduce gene flow between populations.
Karta 747
Pytanie
What is allopatric speciation?
Odpowiedź
Speciation after populations become geographically separated and diverge.
Karta 748
Pytanie
What is sympatric speciation?
Odpowiedź
Speciation without geographic separation, through reproductive isolation within the same area.
Karta 749
Pytanie
What are homologous structures?
Odpowiedź
Structures similar because they were inherited from a common ancestor, even if their functions differ.
Karta 750
Pytanie
Which term describes barriers reducing gene flow between populations?
Odpowiedź
reproductive isolation
Karta 751
Pytanie
Which term describes speciation following geographic separation?
Odpowiedź
allopatric speciation
Karta 752
Pytanie
Which term describes speciation within the same geographic area?
Odpowiedź
sympatric speciation
Karta 753
Pytanie
Which term describes structures similar through common ancestry?
Odpowiedź
homologous structures
Karta 754
Pytanie
What are analogous structures?
Odpowiedź
Structures with similar functions that evolved independently rather than from the same ancestral structure.
Karta 755
Pytanie
What is a common ancestor?
Odpowiedź
An ancestral population from which two or more descendant lineages evolved.
Karta 756
Pytanie
How does the fossil record provide evidence for evolution?
Odpowiedź
It documents organisms from different times, including appearance, change, persistence, and extinction of lineages.
Karta 757
Pytanie
How do DNA and protein sequences provide evidence of common ancestry?
Odpowiedź
Shared sequences are inherited; greater similarity generally indicates more recent common ancestry.
Karta 758
Pytanie
Which term describes functionally similar structures of independent evolutionary origin?
Odpowiedź
analogous structures
Karta 759
Pytanie
Which term describes an ancestral population shared by descendant lineages?
Odpowiedź
a common ancestor
Karta 760
Pytanie
What is the evolutionary significance of extinction?
Odpowiedź
It permanently ends a lineage and can alter ecological opportunities and the future diversification of survivors.
Karta 761
Pytanie
Do individual organisms evolve during their lifetimes?
Odpowiedź
No. Individuals develop and acclimate; evolution is heritable change in populations across generations.
Karta 762
Pytanie
Why is evolution represented as a branching tree rather than a ladder?
Odpowiedź
Lineages split from common ancestors; living species are not arranged as stages toward a single goal.
Karta 763
Pytanie
How can island species support evolutionary explanations?
Odpowiedź
Their similarities to nearby mainland ancestors and unique local adaptations fit divergence after colonization and isolation.
Karta 764
Pytanie
How can geographic isolation lead to reproductive isolation?
Odpowiedź
Separated populations accumulate different mutations and experience different selection and drift until interbreeding is reduced.
Karta 765
Pytanie
Why can continuing gene flow slow speciation?
Odpowiedź
Movement of alleles between populations counteracts genetic divergence.
Karta 766
Pytanie
Why can unrelated species evolve similar traits?
Odpowiedź
Similar environmental challenges can favor similar functional solutions through convergent evolution.
Karta 767
Pytanie
Which parts of evolution are random and which are nonrandom?
Odpowiedź
Mutation and many sampling effects are random with respect to need; natural selection nonrandomly favors variants that reproduce better in a given environment.
Karta 768
Pytanie
What is conservation biology?
Odpowiedź
The science and practice of protecting biodiversity, ecological processes, and evolutionary potential.
Karta 769
Pytanie
What is habitat fragmentation?
Odpowiedź
Division of continuous habitat into smaller, isolated patches.
Karta 770
Pytanie
What is an endangered species?
Odpowiedź
A species facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.
Karta 771
Pytanie
What is in situ conservation?
Odpowiedź
Protection of species in their natural habitats and ecological communities.
Karta 772
Pytanie
Which term describes the protection of biodiversity and ecological processes?
Odpowiedź
conservation biology
Karta 773
Pytanie
Which term describes division of habitat into isolated patches?
Odpowiedź
habitat fragmentation
Karta 774
Pytanie
Which term describes a species at high risk of extinction?
Odpowiedź
an endangered species
Karta 775
Pytanie
Which term describes conservation within natural habitat?
Odpowiedź
in situ conservation
Karta 776
Pytanie
What is ex situ conservation?
Odpowiedź
Protection of organisms or genetic material outside the natural habitat.
Karta 777
Pytanie
What is a population bottleneck?
Odpowiedź
A sharp population reduction that can remove genetic variation by chance.
Karta 778
Pytanie
What is a wildlife corridor?
Odpowiedź
Habitat connecting isolated patches to permit movement and gene flow.
Karta 779
Pytanie
What major human-driven processes threaten biodiversity?
Odpowiedź
Habitat loss, overexploitation, invasive species, pollution, and climate change.
Karta 780
Pytanie
Which term describes conservation outside natural habitat?
Odpowiedź
ex situ conservation
Karta 781
Pytanie
Which term describes a severe population reduction that loses genetic diversity?
Odpowiedź
a population bottleneck
Karta 782
Pytanie
Which term describes habitat linking isolated populations?
Odpowiedź
a wildlife corridor
Karta 783
Pytanie
What makes a protected area more effective than a boundary alone?
Odpowiedź
Adequate size, representative habitat, enforcement, connectivity, local support, and management of external threats.
Karta 784
Pytanie
Why is long-term population monitoring important in conservation?
Odpowiedź
It reveals trends, tests whether management works, and provides early warning of decline.
Karta 785
Pytanie
How can ecosystem services support the case for conservation?
Odpowiedź
Healthy ecosystems provide benefits such as pollination, water purification, carbon storage, soil formation, and cultural value.
Karta 786
Pytanie
Why are very small populations especially vulnerable to extinction?
Odpowiedź
Chance events, inbreeding, low genetic diversity, and difficulty finding mates can reinforce decline.
Karta 787
Pytanie
What are benefits and limits of captive-breeding programs?
Odpowiedź
They can prevent immediate extinction and manage breeding, but may lose diversity, alter behavior, and fail without safe habitat for release.
Karta 788
Pytanie
Why can controlling an invasive species aid conservation?
Odpowiedź
It can reduce predation, competition, disease, or habitat alteration affecting native species.
Karta 789
Pytanie
Why must conservation priorities consider more than species count?
Odpowiedź
Endemism, evolutionary distinctness, ecological roles, threat severity, feasibility, and human needs also matter.
Karta 790
Pytanie
What is an adaptation?
Odpowiedź
A heritable characteristic that increases reproductive success in a particular environment.
Karta 791
Pytanie
What is acclimation?
Odpowiedź
A reversible physiological or behavioral adjustment by an individual to environmental change.
Karta 792
Pytanie
What is a structural adaptation?
Odpowiedź
An inherited anatomical feature that improves performance in an environment.
Karta 793
Pytanie
What is a physiological adaptation?
Odpowiedź
An inherited functional or biochemical feature that improves performance in an environment.
Karta 794
Pytanie
Which term describes a heritable trait improving reproductive success in context?
Odpowiedź
an adaptation
Karta 795
Pytanie
Which term describes an individual's reversible adjustment to environmental change?
Odpowiedź
acclimation
Karta 796
Pytanie
Which term describes an adaptive anatomical feature?
Odpowiedź
a structural adaptation
Karta 797
Pytanie
Which term describes an adaptive functional or biochemical feature?
Odpowiedź
a physiological adaptation
Karta 798
Pytanie
What is a behavioral adaptation?
Odpowiedź
An inherited behavior pattern that improves survival or reproduction.
Karta 799
Pytanie
What is an environmental tolerance range?
Odpowiedź
The range of an abiotic condition within which an organism can survive and reproduce.
Karta 800
Pytanie
What is evolutionary fitness?
Odpowiedź
Relative contribution of an individual or genotype to future generations.
Karta 801
Pytanie
How can a thick cuticle and reduced leaves help a desert plant?
Odpowiedź
The cuticle lowers surface permeability, while smaller leaves reduce the area from which water can evaporate.
Karta 802
Pytanie
Which term describes an adaptive behavior pattern?
Odpowiedź
a behavioral adaptation
Karta 803
Pytanie
Which term describes the survivable range of an abiotic condition?
Odpowiedź
an environmental tolerance range
Karta 804
Pytanie
Which term describes relative reproductive contribution to future generations?
Odpowiedź
evolutionary fitness
Karta 805
Pytanie
How can a streamlined body adapt an aquatic animal to movement?
Odpowiedź
It reduces drag, lowering the energy needed to move through water.
Karta 806
Pytanie
Does an organism develop an adaptation because it needs one?
Odpowiedź
No. Heritable variants arise without regard to need, and selection changes their frequencies across generations.
Karta 807
Pytanie
Why may organisms from different thermal environments have enzymes with different temperature optima?
Odpowiedź
Selection favors protein structures that balance flexibility and stability under local temperatures.
Karta 808
Pytanie
Why is an adaptation rarely beneficial in every environment?
Odpowiedź
Traits carry costs and their advantage depends on local resources, competitors, predators, and physical conditions.
Karta 809
Pytanie
How does phenotypic plasticity differ from genetic adaptation?
Odpowiedź
Plasticity lets one genotype produce different phenotypes; adaptation is a heritable population trait shaped across generations.
Karta 810
Pytanie
What is local adaptation?
Odpowiedź
A population has higher fitness in its home environment than foreign populations because selection favored local traits.
Karta 811
Pytanie
What is an ecological niche?
Odpowiedź
The set of environmental conditions, resources, interactions, and functional roles associated with a species.
Karta 812
Pytanie
What is a habitat?
Odpowiedź
The physical place or environment where an organism lives.
Karta 813
Pytanie
What is a fundamental niche?
Odpowiedź
The full range of conditions and resources a species could use without limiting biotic interactions.
Karta 814
Pytanie
What is a realized niche?
Odpowiedź
The conditions and resources a species actually uses after competition and other interactions.
Karta 815
Pytanie
Which term describes a species' environmental requirements and ecological role?
Odpowiedź
an ecological niche
Karta 816
Pytanie
Which term describes the place where an organism lives?
Odpowiedź
a habitat
Karta 817
Pytanie
Which term describes the potential niche without limiting biotic interactions?
Odpowiedź
a fundamental niche
Karta 818
Pytanie
Which term describes the niche actually occupied in nature?
Odpowiedź
a realized niche
Karta 819
Pytanie
What is competition?
Odpowiedź
An interaction in which organisms reduce one another's access to a limited resource.
Karta 820
Pytanie
What is mutualism?
Odpowiedź
An interaction in which both participating species benefit.
Karta 821
Pytanie
What is predation?
Odpowiedź
An interaction in which one organism kills and consumes another.
Karta 822
Pytanie
How does a habitat differ from a niche?
Odpowiedź
A habitat is where an organism lives; a niche includes how it uses conditions and resources and interacts there.
Karta 823
Pytanie
Which term describes an interaction over a limited resource that harms both competitors?
Odpowiedź
competition
Karta 824
Pytanie
Which term describes an interspecific interaction benefiting both partners?
Odpowiedź
mutualism
Karta 825
Pytanie
Which term describes an interaction where one organism kills and eats another?
Odpowiedź
predation
Karta 826
Pytanie
What kinds of factors define a niche?
Odpowiedź
Abiotic factors such as temperature and moisture, plus biotic factors such as food, competitors, predators, and partners.
Karta 827
Pytanie
What does competitive exclusion predict?
Odpowiedź
Species with effectively identical niches cannot coexist indefinitely under stable conditions; one is excluded or niches diverge.
Karta 828
Pytanie
How can resource partitioning reduce competition?
Odpowiedź
Species use different resources, places, or times, reducing niche overlap.
Karta 829
Pytanie
What is a keystone species?
Odpowiedź
A species whose effect on community structure is disproportionately large relative to its abundance.
Karta 830
Pytanie
Why can an introduced species expand rapidly in a new community?
Odpowiedź
It may encounter abundant resources, suitable climate, and fewer predators, pathogens, or competitors.
Karta 831
Pytanie
Can an organism alter the niche conditions of other species?
Odpowiedź
Yes. Ecosystem engineers modify habitat structure or resource availability, changing opportunities for other organisms.
Karta 832
Pytanie
What is a population?
Odpowiedź
Individuals of the same species living in the same area at the same time.
Karta 833
Pytanie
What is an ecological community?
Odpowiedź
Populations of different species living and interacting in an area.
Karta 834
Pytanie
What is an ecosystem?
Odpowiedź
A community together with its physical environment and their interactions.
Karta 835
Pytanie
What is carrying capacity?
Odpowiedź
The population size an environment can sustain over time under given conditions.
Karta 836
Pytanie
Which term describes same-species individuals sharing an area and time?
Odpowiedź
a population
Karta 837
Pytanie
Which term describes interacting populations of different species?
Odpowiedź
an ecological community
Karta 838
Pytanie
Which term describes a community plus its abiotic environment?
Odpowiedź
an ecosystem
Karta 839
Pytanie
Which term describes the long-term supportable population size?
Odpowiedź
carrying capacity
Karta 840
Pytanie
What is population density?
Odpowiedź
The number of individuals per unit area or volume.
Karta 841
Pytanie
What is a limiting factor?
Odpowiedź
A resource or condition that restricts population growth or distribution.
Karta 842
Pytanie
What is a density-dependent factor?
Odpowiedź
A factor whose effect strengthens as population density increases.
Karta 843
Pytanie
What is a density-independent factor?
Odpowiedź
A factor whose effect is not primarily determined by population density.
Karta 844
Pytanie
Which term describes individuals per unit area or volume?
Odpowiedź
population density
Karta 845
Pytanie
Which term describes a resource or condition restricting a population?
Odpowiedź
a limiting factor
Karta 846
Pytanie
Which term describes a factor with stronger effects at higher density?
Odpowiedź
a density-dependent factor
Karta 847
Pytanie
Which term describes a factor acting largely regardless of population density?
Odpowiedź
a density-independent factor
Karta 848
Pytanie
What is exponential population growth?
Odpowiedź
Growth at a constant per-capita rate, producing a J-shaped curve under ideal conditions.
Karta 849
Pytanie
What is logistic population growth?
Odpowiedź
Growth that slows as population size approaches carrying capacity, producing an S-shaped model.
Karta 850
Pytanie
What four processes directly change population size?
Odpowiedź
Births and immigration increase it; deaths and emigration decrease it.
Karta 851
Pytanie
Under what conditions can exponential growth occur temporarily?
Odpowiedź
Resources are abundant and limiting effects such as competition, disease, and predation are weak.
Karta 852
Pytanie
Which term describes J-shaped growth at constant per-capita rate?
Odpowiedź
exponential population growth
Karta 853
Pytanie
Which term describes S-shaped growth that slows near carrying capacity?
Odpowiedź
logistic population growth
Karta 854
Pytanie
Why is infectious disease often density dependent?
Odpowiedź
Close or frequent contact at high density increases transmission opportunities.
Karta 855
Pytanie
Give an example of a density-independent population factor.
Odpowiedź
A severe storm, wildfire, drought, or freeze can affect populations regardless of their initial density.
Karta 856
Pytanie
When is quadrat sampling useful?
Odpowiedź
For estimating abundance or frequency of sessile or slow-moving organisms in defined areas.
Karta 857
Pytanie
What can a transect reveal?
Odpowiedź
How species occurrence or abundance changes along an environmental gradient.
Karta 858
Pytanie
What can happen when a population overshoots carrying capacity?
Odpowiedź
Resource depletion may raise mortality or lower reproduction, causing decline or oscillation.
Karta 859
Pytanie
What is the basic mark–recapture estimate of population size?
Odpowiedź
First sample marked × second sample total ÷ marked individuals recaptured.
Karta 860
Pytanie
What assumptions improve a mark–recapture estimate?
Odpowiedź
Marks persist and do not affect survival, marked individuals mix, capture probability is similar, and the population is effectively closed.
Karta 861
Pytanie
Why does a correlation between two population variables not prove causation?
Odpowiedź
A third factor, reverse influence, chance, or biased sampling could produce the association.
Karta 862
Pytanie
What is a trophic level?
Odpowiedź
A feeding position in a food chain or web.
Karta 863
Pytanie
What is a producer?
Odpowiedź
An autotroph that converts inorganic carbon into organic matter.
Karta 864
Pytanie
What is a consumer?
Odpowiedź
An organism obtaining energy and matter by eating other organisms or organic material.
Karta 865
Pytanie
What is a decomposer?
Odpowiedź
An organism that externally digests dead material and wastes and absorbs the products.
Karta 866
Pytanie
Which term describes a feeding position in an ecosystem?
Odpowiedź
a trophic level
Karta 867
Pytanie
Which term describes an autotroph forming organic matter?
Odpowiedź
a producer
Karta 868
Pytanie
Which term describes an organism feeding on other organic matter?
Odpowiedź
a consumer
Karta 869
Pytanie
Which term describes an organism digesting dead organic matter externally?
Odpowiedź
a decomposer
Karta 870
Pytanie
What is a food chain?
Odpowiedź
A linear representation of feeding and energy-transfer relationships.
Karta 871
Pytanie
What is a food web?
Odpowiedź
A network of interconnected feeding relationships in a community.
Karta 872
Pytanie
What is gross primary productivity?
Odpowiedź
The total rate at which producers capture energy into organic matter.
Karta 873
Pytanie
What is net primary productivity?
Odpowiedź
Producer energy stored as new biomass after subtracting producer respiration from gross primary productivity.
Karta 874
Pytanie
Which term describes a linear feeding sequence?
Odpowiedź
a food chain
Karta 875
Pytanie
Which term describes a network of connected food chains?
Odpowiedź
a food web
Karta 876
Pytanie
Which term describes the total producer energy-capture rate?
Odpowiedź
gross primary productivity
Karta 877
Pytanie
Which term describes producer biomass gain after respiration?
Odpowiedź
net primary productivity
Karta 878
Pytanie
What is ecological productivity?
Odpowiedź
The rate of biomass or energy production per unit area or volume.
Karta 879
Pytanie
What is a biogeochemical cycle?
Odpowiedź
Movement of an element or compound through organisms and the physical environment.
Karta 880
Pytanie
Why is less energy available at each higher trophic level?
Odpowiedź
Not all biomass is eaten or digested, and organisms use energy in respiration, movement, maintenance, and heat loss.
Karta 881
Pytanie
Why does energy flow rather than cycle through an ecosystem?
Odpowiedź
Energy enters mainly as light and ultimately disperses as heat, which ecosystems cannot fully recycle.
Karta 882
Pytanie
Which term describes the rate of biomass or energy production?
Odpowiedź
ecological productivity
Karta 883
Pytanie
Which term describes cycling of matter through living and nonliving reservoirs?
Odpowiedź
a biogeochemical cycle
Karta 884
Pytanie
Why can matter cycle through an ecosystem?
Odpowiedź
Atoms are conserved and repeatedly transferred among organisms, detritus, soil, water, and atmosphere.
Karta 885
Pytanie
Why is a pyramid of energy always upright?
Odpowiedź
Usable energy decreases between trophic levels because every transfer includes losses.
Karta 886
Pytanie
How are gross and net primary productivity related?
Odpowiedź
NPP = GPP − producer respiration.
Karta 887
Pytanie
How do decomposers support nutrient cycling?
Odpowiedź
They break down dead material and wastes, releasing inorganic nutrients for reuse.
Karta 888
Pytanie
What processes move carbon rapidly between organisms and the atmosphere?
Odpowiedź
Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide; respiration, decomposition, and combustion release it.
Karta 889
Pytanie
Why is nitrogen fixation important?
Odpowiedź
It converts atmospheric nitrogen gas into forms that can enter biological nitrogen metabolism.
Karta 890
Pytanie
How can excess nitrogen or phosphorus cause eutrophication?
Odpowiedź
Nutrient enrichment drives algal growth; decomposition of the biomass consumes oxygen and can create hypoxic water.
Karta 891
Pytanie
Why can a persistent pollutant reach higher concentrations at higher trophic levels?
Odpowiedź
Predators consume contaminant stored in many prey, and the substance is not readily broken down or excreted.
Karta 892
Pytanie
How is trophic-transfer efficiency calculated?
Odpowiedź
Energy or biomass gained by the higher trophic level ÷ energy or biomass available at the lower level × 100%.
Karta 893
Pytanie
What is phenotypic variation?
Odpowiedź
Differences in observable traits among individuals of a population.
Karta 894
Pytanie
What is heritable variation?
Odpowiedź
Trait differences that can be transmitted genetically to offspring.
Karta 895
Pytanie
What is a selection pressure?
Odpowiedź
An environmental factor causing differences in survival or reproduction among phenotypes.
Karta 896
Pytanie
What is relative fitness?
Odpowiedź
An individual's reproductive success compared with others in the population.
Karta 897
Pytanie
Which term describes observable differences among individuals?
Odpowiedź
phenotypic variation
Karta 898
Pytanie
Which term describes genetically transmissible trait differences?
Odpowiedź
heritable variation
Karta 899
Pytanie
Which term describes an environmental factor producing differential reproductive success?
Odpowiedź
a selection pressure
Karta 900
Pytanie
Which term describes reproductive success relative to other individuals?
Odpowiedź
relative fitness
Karta 901
Pytanie
What is directional selection?
Odpowiedź
Selection favoring one extreme phenotype and shifting a population's trait distribution.
Karta 902
Pytanie
What is stabilizing selection?
Odpowiedź
Selection favoring intermediate phenotypes and acting against extremes.
Karta 903
Pytanie
What is disruptive selection?
Odpowiedź
Selection favoring both extreme phenotypes over intermediates.
Karta 904
Pytanie
What is sexual selection?
Odpowiedź
Selection arising from differences in mating success.
Karta 905
Pytanie
Which term describes selection shifting a trait toward one extreme?
Odpowiedź
directional selection
Karta 906
Pytanie
Which term describes selection favoring intermediate phenotypes?
Odpowiedź
stabilizing selection
Karta 907
Pytanie
Which term describes selection favoring both trait extremes?
Odpowiedź
disruptive selection
Karta 908
Pytanie
Which term describes selection caused by unequal mating success?
Odpowiedź
sexual selection
Karta 909
Pytanie
What conditions are required for natural selection?
Odpowiedź
Individuals vary, some variation is heritable, more offspring are produced than can reproduce, and variants differ in reproductive success.
Karta 910
Pytanie
How does natural selection produce antibiotic-resistant bacterial populations?
Odpowiedź
Existing resistant variants survive treatment and reproduce more than susceptible bacteria.
Karta 911
Pytanie
Does an antibiotic cause bacteria to mutate specifically toward resistance?
Odpowiedź
No. Resistance variants arise without regard to need; treatment selects among them.
Karta 912
Pytanie
Can an individual become genetically adapted through natural selection?
Odpowiedź
No. Selection acts on individuals, but adaptation is a population change across generations.
Karta 913
Pytanie
How does artificial selection differ from natural selection?
Odpowiedź
Humans choose breeding traits in artificial selection; environmental conditions determine differential reproduction in natural selection.
Karta 914
Pytanie
How does natural selection change a population?
Odpowiedź
Individuals with advantageous heritable variants leave more offspring, increasing those alleles over generations.
Karta 915
Pytanie
Why is fitness environment-dependent?
Odpowiedź
A trait that improves reproduction in one environment may be neutral or costly in another.
Karta 916
Pytanie
How does genetic drift differ from natural selection?
Odpowiedź
Drift changes allele frequencies by chance sampling; selection changes them through consistent fitness differences.
Karta 917
Pytanie
What is ecosystem stability?
Odpowiedź
The capacity of an ecosystem to maintain or recover its structure and functions despite disturbance.
Karta 918
Pytanie
What is an ecological tipping point?
Odpowiedź
A threshold beyond which feedbacks can drive a large and difficult-to-reverse ecosystem shift.
Karta 919
Pytanie
What is a mesocosm?
Odpowiedź
A controlled, simplified ecosystem used to investigate ecological processes under more realistic conditions than a small laboratory vessel.
Karta 920
Pytanie
What is a sustainable yield?
Odpowiedź
A harvest rate that can continue without causing long-term resource decline under prevailing conditions.
Karta 921
Pytanie
Which term describes the capacity of an ecosystem to persist or recover after disturbance?
Odpowiedź
ecosystem stability
Karta 922
Pytanie
Which term describes a threshold triggering a major hard-to-reverse ecosystem shift?
Odpowiedź
an ecological tipping point
Karta 923
Pytanie
Which term describes a controlled model ecosystem used for experiments?
Odpowiedź
a mesocosm
Karta 924
Pytanie
Which term describes a harvest rate that avoids long-term depletion?
Odpowiedź
a sustainable yield
Karta 925
Pytanie
What is eutrophication?
Odpowiedź
Nutrient enrichment of water that stimulates excess primary production and can lead to oxygen depletion.
Karta 926
Pytanie
What is biomagnification?
Odpowiedź
Increase in concentration of a persistent pollutant at successively higher trophic levels.
Karta 927
Pytanie
What is rewilding?
Odpowiedź
Ecosystem restoration that rebuilds natural processes, species interactions, and self-sustaining ecological function.
Karta 928
Pytanie
What features can make an ecosystem more stable?
Odpowiedź
Diverse functional roles, connected habitats, intact food webs, nutrient cycling, and balancing feedbacks can help the system resist or recover from disturbance.
Karta 929
Pytanie
Which term describes nutrient enrichment that can deplete oxygen in water?
Odpowiedź
eutrophication
Karta 930
Pytanie
Which term describes increasing pollutant concentration up a food chain?
Odpowiedź
biomagnification
Karta 931
Pytanie
Which term describes restoration focused on natural processes and self-sustaining ecosystems?
Odpowiedź
rewilding
Karta 932
Pytanie
How could extensive Amazon deforestation push the ecosystem toward a tipping point?
Odpowiedź
Loss of trees can reduce rainfall recycling and increase heat and fire, which cause further forest loss and may shift large areas toward a drier state.
Karta 933
Pytanie
What are a benefit and a limitation of using a mesocosm?
Odpowiedź
It allows controlled experiments with interacting organisms, but its simplified scale cannot reproduce every process or long-term influence in a natural ecosystem.
Karta 934
Pytanie
Why should a fishery harvest below an uncertain maximum sustainable yield?
Odpowiedź
Population estimates and recruitment vary, so a safety margin reduces the chance that error or a poor breeding year drives long-term decline.
Karta 935
Pytanie
How can intensive agriculture reduce ecosystem stability?
Odpowiedź
Habitat loss, low crop diversity, soil degradation, heavy water use, pesticides, and nutrient runoff can weaken food webs and ecosystem processes.
Karta 936
Pytanie
Why can microplastic pollution harm aquatic ecosystems?
Odpowiedź
Small persistent particles can be ingested, carry additives or other pollutants, damage feeding and tissues, and move through food webs.
Karta 937
Pytanie
How can rewilding improve ecosystem stability?
Odpowiedź
Restoring native species, habitat connections, and natural disturbance or grazing processes can rebuild feedbacks and allow the ecosystem to maintain itself with less intervention.
Karta 938
Pytanie
What is the greenhouse effect?
Odpowiedź
Warming caused when atmospheric gases absorb and re-emit outgoing infrared radiation.
Karta 939
Pytanie
What is a greenhouse gas?
Odpowiedź
An atmospheric gas that absorbs infrared radiation at wavelengths emitted by Earth.
Karta 940
Pytanie
What is carbon dioxide (CO₂)?
Odpowiedź
A long-lived greenhouse gas increased mainly by fossil-fuel combustion, cement production, and land-use change.
Karta 941
Pytanie
What is methane (CH₄)?
Odpowiedź
A potent greenhouse gas emitted by sources including fossil-fuel systems, livestock, rice cultivation, wetlands, and waste.
Karta 942
Pytanie
Which term describes warming from absorption and re-emission of infrared radiation?
Odpowiedź
the greenhouse effect
Karta 943
Pytanie
Which term describes an atmospheric infrared-absorbing gas?
Odpowiedź
a greenhouse gas
Karta 944
Pytanie
Which term describes the long-lived greenhouse gas strongly increased by fossil fuels?
Odpowiedź
carbon dioxide (CO₂)
Karta 945
Pytanie
Which term describes the potent short-lived greenhouse gas from biological and fossil sources?
Odpowiedź
methane (CH₄)
Karta 946
Pytanie
What is albedo?
Odpowiedź
The fraction of incoming radiation reflected by a surface.
Karta 947
Pytanie
What is a carbon sink?
Odpowiedź
A reservoir that absorbs more carbon than it releases over a specified period.
Karta 948
Pytanie
What is ocean acidification?
Odpowiedź
Decline in seawater pH caused mainly by absorption of human-emitted carbon dioxide.
Karta 949
Pytanie
What is climate change?
Odpowiedź
A persistent change in the statistical patterns of climate over decades or longer.
Karta 950
Pytanie
Which term describes surface reflectivity?
Odpowiedź
albedo
Karta 951
Pytanie
Which term describes a reservoir with net carbon uptake?
Odpowiedź
a carbon sink
Karta 952
Pytanie
Which term describes seawater pH decline from absorbed carbon dioxide?
Odpowiedź
ocean acidification
Karta 953
Pytanie
Which term describes long-term change in climate patterns?
Odpowiedź
climate change
Karta 954
Pytanie
What is the enhanced greenhouse effect?
Odpowiedź
Additional warming caused by human-driven increases in greenhouse-gas concentrations.
Karta 955
Pytanie
How do climate mitigation and climate adaptation differ?
Odpowiedź
Mitigation limits the magnitude of climate change; adaptation reduces harm from changes that occur.
Karta 956
Pytanie
How does increasing greenhouse-gas concentration alter Earth's energy balance?
Odpowiedź
Less outgoing infrared energy initially escapes to space, so the climate warms until energy balance is restored at a higher temperature.
Karta 957
Pytanie
How can melting ice amplify warming?
Odpowiedź
Less bright ice lowers albedo, so darker land or water absorbs more solar energy and causes further warming.
Karta 958
Pytanie
How can climate change alter species distributions?
Odpowiedź
Temperature, rainfall, seasons, sea level, and interactions shift, moving or shrinking areas with suitable conditions.
Karta 959
Pytanie
Why can ocean acidification harm calcifying organisms?
Odpowiedź
Carbonate chemistry changes, reducing availability of carbonate ions used to build calcium-carbonate structures.
Karta 960
Pytanie
How can ecosystem protection contribute to climate mitigation?
Odpowiedź
Protecting forests, wetlands, soils, and coastal habitats can avoid emissions and maintain or increase carbon storage.
960 kart
IB Biology SL Flashcards: Complete Course Review
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