AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
Review all five AP® Psychology units with 705 independently written cards covering concepts, scenarios, research methods, data interpretation, and evidence-based reasoning.
O tej talii
Review all five units in the AP® Psychology course framework with 705 independently written English flashcards. The deck covers Biological Bases of Behavior, Cognition, Development and Learning, Social Psychology and Personality, and Mental and Physical Health. It supports all four science practices: Concept Application, Research Methods and Design, Data Interpretation, and Argumentation.
What the cards ask you to retrieve
- Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
- Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
- Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
- Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
- Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.
The order follows Units 1–5, keeps related material within the current or next topic, and introduces prerequisites and chronological steps first. Definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are separated by at least three unrelated cards. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences remain adjacent only when that progression helps learning.
What's deliberately left out
The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or use long essay prompts. It also leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.
Check the official AP Psychology course page for authoritative requirements. Psychological facts and the course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, ordering, and inherited generated cover, to the extent those rights exist.
This is an independent, unofficial study aid. It isn't affiliated with, endorsed by, sponsored by, or official material from College Board or the AP Program. AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this product. No College Board examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or trade dress were copied or adapted.
Karty w tej talii
Karta 1
Pytanie
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
Odpowiedź
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
Karta 2
Pytanie
Central nervous system?
Odpowiedź
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
Karta 3
Pytanie
Main role of the spinal cord?
Odpowiedź
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
Karta 4
Pytanie
Scores are
4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?Odpowiedź
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
Karta 5
Pytanie
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
Odpowiedź
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
Karta 6
Pytanie
Peripheral nervous system?
Odpowiedź
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
Karta 7
Pytanie
Reflex arc?
Odpowiedź
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
Karta 8
Pytanie
Reflex times are
180, 190, 210, 260, 410milliseconds. What is the median?Odpowiedź
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
Karta 9
Pytanie
Heritability?
Odpowiedź
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
Karta 10
Pytanie
Autonomic nervous system?
Odpowiedź
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
Karta 11
Pytanie
Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
Odpowiedź
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
Karta 12
Pytanie
Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
Odpowiedź
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
Karta 13
Pytanie
Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
Odpowiedź
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
Karta 14
Pytanie
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
Odpowiedź
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
Karta 15
Pytanie
Natural selection?
Odpowiedź
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
Karta 16
Pytanie
Somatic nervous system?
Odpowiedź
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
Karta 17
Pytanie
Sensory neurons?
Odpowiedź
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
Karta 18
Pytanie
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
Odpowiedź
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
Karta 19
Pytanie
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
Odpowiedź
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
Karta 20
Pytanie
Sympathetic nervous system?
Odpowiedź
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
Karta 21
Pytanie
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
Odpowiedź
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
Karta 22
Pytanie
Motor neurons?
Odpowiedź
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
Karta 23
Pytanie
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
Odpowiedź
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
Karta 24
Pytanie
Parasympathetic nervous system?
Odpowiedź
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
Karta 25
Pytanie
Resting potential?
Odpowiedź
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
Karta 26
Pytanie
Interneurons?
Odpowiedź
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
Karta 27
Pytanie
Adrenaline's behavioral role?
Odpowiedź
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
Karta 28
Pytanie
Frontal lobes?
Odpowiedź
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
Karta 29
Pytanie
Neural threshold?
Odpowiedź
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
Karta 30
Pytanie
Corpus callosum?
Odpowiedź
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
Karta 31
Pytanie
Leptin's role in eating?
Odpowiedź
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
Karta 32
Pytanie
Temporal lobes?
Odpowiedź
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
Karta 33
Pytanie
Depolarization during an action potential?
Odpowiedź
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
Karta 34
Pytanie
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
Odpowiedź
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
Karta 35
Pytanie
Ghrelin's role in eating?
Odpowiedź
It helps stimulate hunger.
Karta 36
Pytanie
Drug agonist?
Odpowiedź
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
Karta 37
Pytanie
Action potential?
Odpowiedź
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
Karta 38
Pytanie
Reuptake?
Odpowiedź
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
Karta 39
Pytanie
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
Odpowiedź
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
Karta 40
Pytanie
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
Odpowiedź
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
Karta 41
Pytanie
Refractory period?
Odpowiedź
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
Karta 42
Pytanie
Melatonin's role?
Odpowiedź
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
Karta 43
Pytanie
Drug antagonist?
Odpowiedź
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
Karta 44
Pytanie
Stimulants?
Odpowiedź
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
Karta 45
Pytanie
Drug tolerance?
Odpowiedź
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
Karta 46
Pytanie
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Odpowiedź
Multiple sclerosis.
Karta 47
Pytanie
All-or-none principle?
Odpowiedź
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
Karta 48
Pytanie
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
Odpowiedź
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
Karta 49
Pytanie
GABA's major psychological function?
Odpowiedź
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
Karta 50
Pytanie
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
Odpowiedź
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
Karta 51
Pytanie
Reuptake inhibitor?
Odpowiedź
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
Karta 52
Pytanie
Depressants?
Odpowiedź
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
Karta 53
Pytanie
Drug withdrawal?
Odpowiedź
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
Karta 54
Pytanie
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Odpowiedź
Myasthenia gravis.
Karta 55
Pytanie
Glial cells?
Odpowiedź
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
Karta 56
Pytanie
Endorphins?
Odpowiedź
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
Karta 57
Pytanie
Substance P?
Odpowiedź
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
Karta 58
Pytanie
Acetylcholine's major functions?
Odpowiedź
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
Karta 59
Pytanie
Opioids?
Odpowiedź
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
Karta 60
Pytanie
Hallucinogens?
Odpowiedź
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
Karta 61
Pytanie
Addiction?
Odpowiedź
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
Karta 62
Pytanie
Parietal lobes?
Odpowiedź
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
Karta 63
Pytanie
Consciousness?
Odpowiedź
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
Karta 64
Pytanie
Circadian rhythm?
Odpowiedź
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
Karta 65
Pytanie
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
Odpowiedź
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
Karta 66
Pytanie
Occipital lobes?
Odpowiedź
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
Karta 67
Pytanie
What does split-brain research reveal?
Odpowiedź
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
Karta 68
Pytanie
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
Odpowiedź
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
Karta 69
Pytanie
NREM-1 sleep?
Odpowiedź
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
Karta 70
Pytanie
Motor cortex?
Odpowiedź
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
Karta 71
Pytanie
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
Odpowiedź
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
Karta 72
Pytanie
Brainstem's core function?
Odpowiedź
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
Karta 73
Pytanie
NREM-2 sleep?
Odpowiedź
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
Karta 74
Pytanie
Somatosensory cortex?
Odpowiedź
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
Karta 75
Pytanie
Medulla's main functions?
Odpowiedź
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Karta 76
Pytanie
Reticular activating system?
Odpowiedź
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
Karta 77
Pytanie
NREM-3 sleep?
Odpowiedź
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
Karta 78
Pytanie
Cerebellum's main functions?
Odpowiedź
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
Karta 79
Pytanie
Thalamus?
Odpowiedź
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
Karta 80
Pytanie
Hypothalamus?
Odpowiedź
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
Karta 81
Pytanie
REM sleep?
Odpowiedź
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
Karta 82
Pytanie
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
Odpowiedź
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
Karta 83
Pytanie
Amygdala?
Odpowiedź
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
Karta 84
Pytanie
Hippocampus?
Odpowiedź
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
Karta 85
Pytanie
How does sleep change across a typical night?
Odpowiedź
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
Karta 86
Pytanie
Contralateral brain control?
Odpowiedź
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
Karta 87
Pytanie
What does an EEG measure?
Odpowiedź
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
Karta 88
Pytanie
Reward-center activity?
Odpowiedź
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
Karta 89
Pytanie
Neuroplasticity?
Odpowiedź
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
Karta 90
Pytanie
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
Odpowiedź
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
Karta 91
Pytanie
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
Odpowiedź
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
Karta 92
Pytanie
Insomnia?
Odpowiedź
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
Karta 93
Pytanie
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
Odpowiedź
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
Karta 94
Pytanie
Absolute threshold?
Odpowiedź
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
Karta 95
Pytanie
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
Odpowiedź
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
Karta 96
Pytanie
Narcolepsy?
Odpowiedź
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
Karta 97
Pytanie
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
Odpowiedź
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
Karta 98
Pytanie
Difference threshold?
Odpowiedź
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
Karta 99
Pytanie
Consolidation view of dreams?
Odpowiedź
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
Karta 100
Pytanie
REM sleep behavior disorder?
Odpowiedź
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
Karta 101
Pytanie
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
Odpowiedź
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
Karta 102
Pytanie
Weber's law?
Odpowiedź
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
Karta 103
Pytanie
Two supported functions of sleep?
Odpowiedź
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
Karta 104
Pytanie
Sleep apnea?
Odpowiedź
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
Karta 105
Pytanie
REM rebound?
Odpowiedź
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
Karta 106
Pytanie
Signal detection theory?
Odpowiedź
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
Karta 107
Pytanie
Sensory transduction?
Odpowiedź
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
Karta 108
Pytanie
Vestibular sense?
Odpowiedź
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
Karta 109
Pytanie
Somnambulism?
Odpowiedź
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
Karta 110
Pytanie
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
Odpowiedź
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
Karta 111
Pytanie
What begins visual transduction?
Odpowiedź
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
Karta 112
Pytanie
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
Odpowiedź
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
Karta 113
Pytanie
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
Odpowiedź
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
Karta 114
Pytanie
Accommodation in vision?
Odpowiedź
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
Karta 115
Pytanie
Cones?
Odpowiedź
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
Karta 116
Pytanie
What begins auditory transduction?
Odpowiedź
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
Karta 117
Pytanie
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
Odpowiedź
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
Karta 118
Pytanie
How is smell unusual among the senses?
Odpowiedź
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
Karta 119
Pytanie
Kinesthesia?
Odpowiedź
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
Karta 120
Pytanie
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
Odpowiedź
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
Karta 121
Pytanie
Nearsightedness?
Odpowiedź
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
Karta 122
Pytanie
Pheromones?
Odpowiedź
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
Karta 123
Pytanie
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
Odpowiedź
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
Karta 124
Pytanie
Volley theory of pitch?
Odpowiedź
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
Karta 125
Pytanie
Farsightedness?
Odpowiedź
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
Karta 126
Pytanie
Six taste qualities named in the course?
Odpowiedź
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
Karta 127
Pytanie
Phantom-limb sensation?
Odpowiedź
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
Karta 128
Pytanie
Sensory interaction?
Odpowiedź
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
Karta 129
Pytanie
What causes most color-vision deficiency?
Odpowiedź
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
Karta 130
Pytanie
Prosopagnosia?
Odpowiedź
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
Karta 131
Pytanie
Rods?
Odpowiedź
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
Karta 132
Pytanie
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
Odpowiedź
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
Karta 133
Pytanie
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
Odpowiedź
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
Karta 134
Pytanie
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
Odpowiedź
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
Karta 135
Pytanie
What do the semicircular canals detect?
Odpowiedź
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
Karta 136
Pytanie
Synesthesia?
Odpowiedź
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
Karta 137
Pytanie
Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
Odpowiedź
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
Karta 138
Pytanie
Blindsight?
Odpowiedź
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
Karta 139
Pytanie
Sensory adaptation?
Odpowiedź
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
Karta 140
Pytanie
Gate-control view of pain?
Odpowiedź
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
Karta 141
Pytanie
Bottom-up processing?
Odpowiedź
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
Karta 142
Pytanie
Concept?
Odpowiedź
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Karta 143
Pytanie
Fixation in problem solving?
Odpowiedź
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
Karta 144
Pytanie
Algorithm?
Odpowiedź
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
Karta 145
Pytanie
Top-down processing?
Odpowiedź
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
Karta 146
Pytanie
Confirmation bias?
Odpowiedź
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
Karta 147
Pytanie
Retinal disparity?
Odpowiedź
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
Karta 148
Pytanie
Heuristic?
Odpowiedź
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
Karta 149
Pytanie
Selective attention?
Odpowiedź
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
Karta 150
Pytanie
Figure–ground organization?
Odpowiedź
Separating the object of attention from its background.
Karta 151
Pytanie
Convergence as a depth cue?
Odpowiedź
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
Karta 152
Pytanie
Representativeness heuristic?
Odpowiedź
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
Karta 153
Pytanie
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
Odpowiedź
Inattentional blindness.
Karta 154
Pytanie
Gestalt proximity principle?
Odpowiedź
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
Karta 155
Pytanie
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
Odpowiedź
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
Karta 156
Pytanie
Cocktail-party effect?
Odpowiedź
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
Karta 157
Pytanie
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
Odpowiedź
Change blindness.
Karta 158
Pytanie
Gestalt similarity principle?
Odpowiedź
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
Karta 159
Pytanie
Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
Odpowiedź
Linear perspective.
Karta 160
Pytanie
Perceptual constancy?
Odpowiedź
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
Karta 161
Pytanie
Perceptual set?
Odpowiedź
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
Karta 162
Pytanie
Gestalt closure principle?
Odpowiedź
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
Karta 163
Pytanie
One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
Odpowiedź
The blocking object, using interposition.
Karta 164
Pytanie
Apparent motion?
Odpowiedź
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
Karta 165
Pytanie
Availability heuristic?
Odpowiedź
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
Karta 166
Pytanie
Divergent thinking?
Odpowiedź
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
Karta 167
Pytanie
A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
Odpowiedź
Relative clarity.
Karta 168
Pytanie
Prototype?
Odpowiedź
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
Karta 169
Pytanie
Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
Odpowiedź
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
Karta 170
Pytanie
Convergent thinking?
Odpowiedź
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
Karta 171
Pytanie
A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
Odpowiedź
Texture gradient.
Karta 172
Pytanie
Belief perseverance?
Odpowiedź
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
Karta 173
Pytanie
Explicit memory?
Odpowiedź
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
Karta 174
Pytanie
Three stores in the multi-store model?
Odpowiedź
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Karta 175
Pytanie
Seeing an object only in its usual role?
Odpowiedź
Functional fixedness.
Karta 176
Pytanie
Mental set?
Odpowiedź
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
Karta 177
Pytanie
Episodic memory?
Odpowiedź
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
Karta 178
Pytanie
Working memory?
Odpowiedź
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
Karta 179
Pytanie
Insight?
Odpowiedź
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Karta 180
Pytanie
Framing effect?
Odpowiedź
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
Karta 181
Pytanie
Implicit memory?
Odpowiedź
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
Karta 182
Pytanie
Overconfidence bias?
Odpowiedź
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
Karta 183
Pytanie
Anchoring bias?
Odpowiedź
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
Karta 184
Pytanie
Schema in thinking?
Odpowiedź
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
Karta 185
Pytanie
Procedural memory?
Odpowiedź
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
Karta 186
Pytanie
Gambler's fallacy?
Odpowiedź
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
Karta 187
Pytanie
Sunk-cost fallacy?
Odpowiedź
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
Karta 188
Pytanie
Executive functions?
Odpowiedź
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
Karta 189
Pytanie
How can priming affect judgment?
Odpowiedź
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
Karta 190
Pytanie
Central executive in working memory?
Odpowiedź
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
Karta 191
Pytanie
Serial-position effect?
Odpowiedź
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
Karta 192
Pytanie
Semantic memory?
Odpowiedź
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
Karta 193
Pytanie
Levels-of-processing principle?
Odpowiedź
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
Karta 194
Pytanie
Automatic processing?
Odpowiedź
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
Karta 195
Pytanie
Maintenance rehearsal?
Odpowiedź
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
Karta 196
Pytanie
Prospective memory?
Odpowiedź
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
Karta 197
Pytanie
Primacy effect?
Odpowiedź
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
Karta 198
Pytanie
Long-term memory?
Odpowiedź
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
Karta 199
Pytanie
Highly superior autobiographical memory?
Odpowiedź
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
Karta 200
Pytanie
Effortful processing?
Odpowiedź
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
Karta 201
Pytanie
Elaborative rehearsal?
Odpowiedź
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
Karta 202
Pytanie
Memory consolidation?
Odpowiedź
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
Karta 203
Pytanie
Recency effect?
Odpowiedź
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
Karta 204
Pytanie
Spacing effect?
Odpowiedź
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
Karta 205
Pytanie
Testing effect?
Odpowiedź
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
Karta 206
Pytanie
Chunking?
Odpowiedź
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
Karta 207
Pytanie
Mnemonic?
Odpowiedź
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
Karta 208
Pytanie
Why organize material into a hierarchy?
Odpowiedź
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
Karta 209
Pytanie
How can a schema help encoding?
Odpowiedź
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
Karta 210
Pytanie
Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
Odpowiedź
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
Karta 211
Pytanie
Iconic memory?
Odpowiedź
A very brief visual sensory memory.
Karta 212
Pytanie
Recall?
Odpowiedź
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
Karta 213
Pytanie
Retrieval cue?
Odpowiedź
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
Karta 214
Pytanie
Encoding-specificity principle?
Odpowiedź
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
Karta 215
Pytanie
Context-dependent memory?
Odpowiedź
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
Karta 216
Pytanie
Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
Odpowiedź
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
Karta 217
Pytanie
Echoic memory?
Odpowiedź
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
Karta 218
Pytanie
Anterograde amnesia?
Odpowiedź
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
Karta 219
Pytanie
Phonological loop?
Odpowiedź
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
Karta 220
Pytanie
Cerebellum's memory role?
Odpowiedź
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
Karta 221
Pytanie
Why is short-term memory described as limited?
Odpowiedź
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
Karta 222
Pytanie
Retrograde amnesia?
Odpowiedź
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
Karta 223
Pytanie
Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
Odpowiedź
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
Karta 224
Pytanie
How can the amygdala affect memory?
Odpowiedź
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
Karta 225
Pytanie
Visuospatial sketchpad?
Odpowiedź
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
Karta 226
Pytanie
Long-term potentiation?
Odpowiedź
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
Karta 227
Pytanie
Infantile amnesia?
Odpowiedź
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
Karta 228
Pytanie
Alzheimer's disease?
Odpowiedź
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
Karta 229
Pytanie
Scores are
2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?Odpowiedź
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because
9 - 2 = 7.Karta 230
Pytanie
Recognition?
Odpowiedź
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
Karta 231
Pytanie
Why is memory called reconstructive?
Odpowiedź
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
Karta 232
Pytanie
Storage decay?
Odpowiedź
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
Karta 233
Pytanie
State-dependent memory?
Odpowiedź
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
Karta 234
Pytanie
Relearning?
Odpowiedź
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
Karta 235
Pytanie
Misinformation effect?
Odpowiedź
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
Karta 236
Pytanie
A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
Odpowiedź
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
Karta 237
Pytanie
Mood-congruent memory?
Odpowiedź
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
Karta 238
Pytanie
Priming?
Odpowiedź
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
Karta 239
Pytanie
Tip-of-the-tongue state?
Odpowiedź
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
Karta 240
Pytanie
Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
Odpowiedź
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
Karta 241
Pytanie
Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
Odpowiedź
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
Karta 242
Pytanie
Metacognition?
Odpowiedź
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
Karta 243
Pytanie
Source amnesia?
Odpowiedź
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
Karta 244
Pytanie
Test standardization?
Odpowiedź
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
Karta 245
Pytanie
Reliability?
Odpowiedź
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
Karta 246
Pytanie
Stereotype threat?
Odpowiedź
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
Karta 247
Pytanie
General intelligence, or g?
Odpowiedź
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
Karta 248
Pytanie
Encoding failure?
Odpowiedź
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
Karta 249
Pytanie
Validity?
Odpowiedź
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
Karta 250
Pytanie
Proactive interference?
Odpowiedź
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
Karta 251
Pytanie
Imagination inflation?
Odpowiedź
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
Karta 252
Pytanie
A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
Odpowiedź
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
Karta 253
Pytanie
Retrieval failure?
Odpowiedź
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
Karta 254
Pytanie
Retroactive interference?
Odpowiedź
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
Karta 255
Pytanie
A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
Odpowiedź
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
Karta 256
Pytanie
Repression in psychodynamic theory?
Odpowiedź
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
Karta 257
Pytanie
Flashbulb memory?
Odpowiedź
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
Karta 258
Pytanie
A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
Odpowiedź
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
Karta 259
Pytanie
A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
Odpowiedź
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
Karta 260
Pytanie
Stereotype lift?
Odpowiedź
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
Karta 261
Pytanie
Achievement test?
Odpowiedź
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
Karta 262
Pytanie
Construct validity?
Odpowiedź
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
Karta 263
Pytanie
Test–retest reliability?
Odpowiedź
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
Karta 264
Pytanie
Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
Odpowiedź
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
Karta 265
Pytanie
Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
Odpowiedź
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
Karta 266
Pytanie
Aptitude test?
Odpowiedź
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
Karta 267
Pytanie
Traditional IQ formula?
Odpowiedź
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
Karta 268
Pytanie
Predictive validity?
Odpowiedź
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
Karta 269
Pytanie
What does a normal score distribution look like?
Odpowiedź
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
Karta 270
Pytanie
Split-half reliability?
Odpowiedź
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
Karta 271
Pytanie
Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
Odpowiedź
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
Karta 272
Pytanie
Flynn effect?
Odpowiedź
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
Karta 273
Pytanie
A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
Odpowiedź
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
Karta 274
Pytanie
Continuous versus stage development?
Odpowiedź
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
Karta 275
Pytanie
How can prenatal environment affect later development?
Odpowiedź
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
Karta 276
Pytanie
Teratogen?
Odpowiedź
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
Karta 277
Pytanie
Maturation?
Odpowiedź
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
Karta 278
Pytanie
Stability–change question in development?
Odpowiedź
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
Karta 279
Pytanie
A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
Odpowiedź
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
Karta 280
Pytanie
Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
Odpowiedź
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
Karta 281
Pytanie
Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
Odpowiedź
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
Karta 282
Pytanie
Fine versus gross motor skills?
Odpowiedź
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
Karta 283
Pytanie
Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
Odpowiedź
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
Karta 284
Pytanie
What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
Odpowiedź
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
Karta 285
Pytanie
Puberty?
Odpowiedź
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
Karta 286
Pytanie
Sensitive period?
Odpowiedź
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
Karta 287
Pytanie
What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
Odpowiedź
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
Karta 288
Pytanie
Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
Odpowiedź
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
Karta 289
Pytanie
Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
Odpowiedź
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
Karta 290
Pytanie
Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
Odpowiedź
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
Karta 291
Pytanie
Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
Odpowiedź
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
Karta 292
Pytanie
Menarche?
Odpowiedź
The first menstrual period.
Karta 293
Pytanie
Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
Odpowiedź
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
Karta 294
Pytanie
About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
Odpowiedź
About 68%.
Karta 295
Pytanie
A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
Odpowiedź
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
Karta 296
Pytanie
Spermarche?
Odpowiedź
The first ejaculation.
Karta 297
Pytanie
Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
Odpowiedź
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
Karta 298
Pytanie
Imprinting?
Odpowiedź
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
Karta 299
Pytanie
Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
Odpowiedź
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
Karta 300
Pytanie
Menopause?
Odpowiedź
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
Karta 301
Pytanie
Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
Odpowiedź
Naturalistic observation.
Karta 302
Pytanie
How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
Odpowiedź
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
Karta 303
Pytanie
Gender identity?
Odpowiedź
A person's internal sense of their gender.
Karta 304
Pytanie
Gender role?
Odpowiedź
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
Karta 305
Pytanie
Sex versus gender?
Odpowiedź
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
Karta 306
Pytanie
Common sensory change in later adulthood?
Odpowiedź
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
Karta 307
Pytanie
Sexual orientation?
Odpowiedź
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
Karta 308
Pytanie
Gender schema?
Odpowiedź
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
Karta 309
Pytanie
Best broad view of gender development?
Odpowiedź
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
Karta 310
Pytanie
Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
Odpowiedź
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
Karta 311
Pytanie
Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
Odpowiedź
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
Karta 312
Pytanie
Schema in cognitive development?
Odpowiedź
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
Karta 313
Pytanie
Sensorimotor stage?
Odpowiedź
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
Karta 314
Pytanie
Preoperational stage?
Odpowiedź
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
Karta 315
Pytanie
Assimilation?
Odpowiedź
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
Karta 316
Pytanie
A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
Odpowiedź
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
Karta 317
Pytanie
Animism in preoperational thought?
Odpowiedź
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
Karta 318
Pytanie
Concrete operational stage?
Odpowiedź
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
Karta 319
Pytanie
Accommodation?
Odpowiedź
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
Karta 320
Pytanie
Reversibility in cognitive development?
Odpowiedź
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
Karta 321
Pytanie
How can social learning shape gender expression?
Odpowiedź
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
Karta 322
Pytanie
A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
Odpowiedź
Assimilation.
Karta 323
Pytanie
Language?
Odpowiedź
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
Karta 324
Pytanie
Cooing stage?
Odpowiedź
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
Karta 325
Pytanie
Babbling stage?
Odpowiedź
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
Karta 326
Pytanie
One-word stage?
Odpowiedź
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
Karta 327
Pytanie
Grammar?
Odpowiedź
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
Karta 328
Pytanie
A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
Odpowiedź
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
Karta 329
Pytanie
Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
Odpowiedź
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
Karta 330
Pytanie
A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
Odpowiedź
Accommodation.
Karta 331
Pytanie
A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
Odpowiedź
Scaffolding.
Karta 332
Pytanie
A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
Odpowiedź
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
Karta 333
Pytanie
Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
Odpowiedź
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
Karta 334
Pytanie
An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
Odpowiedź
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
Karta 335
Pytanie
Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
Odpowiedź
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
Karta 336
Pytanie
Formal operational stage?
Odpowiedź
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
Karta 337
Pytanie
Dementia?
Odpowiedź
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
Karta 338
Pytanie
Phoneme?
Odpowiedź
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
Karta 339
Pytanie
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
Odpowiedź
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
Karta 340
Pytanie
Temperament?
Odpowiedź
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
Karta 341
Pytanie
Attachment?
Odpowiedź
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
Karta 342
Pytanie
Erikson's infancy conflict?
Odpowiedź
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
Karta 343
Pytanie
Microsystem?
Odpowiedź
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
Karta 344
Pytanie
Erikson's toddler conflict?
Odpowiedź
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
Karta 345
Pytanie
Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
Odpowiedź
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
Karta 346
Pytanie
Erikson's school-age conflict?
Odpowiedź
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
Karta 347
Pytanie
Mesosystem?
Odpowiedź
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
Karta 348
Pytanie
Erikson's adolescent conflict?
Odpowiedź
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
Karta 349
Pytanie
Erikson's young-adult conflict?
Odpowiedź
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
Karta 350
Pytanie
Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
Odpowiedź
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
Karta 351
Pytanie
Exosystem?
Odpowiedź
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
Karta 352
Pytanie
Morpheme?
Odpowiedź
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
Karta 353
Pytanie
Telegraphic speech?
Odpowiedź
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
705 kart
AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
Ucz się z tej talii za darmoOtworzy się Nibomo, żeby od razu zacząć naukę.
Karta 354
Pytanie
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
Odpowiedź
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
Karta 355
Pytanie
Macrosystem?
Odpowiedź
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
Karta 356
Pytanie
Semantics?
Odpowiedź
The meanings of words and sentences.
Karta 357
Pytanie
A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
Odpowiedź
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
Karta 358
Pytanie
What does a sensitive period for language imply?
Odpowiedź
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
Karta 359
Pytanie
Does language completely determine thought?
Odpowiedź
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
Karta 360
Pytanie
Syntax?
Odpowiedź
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
Karta 361
Pytanie
A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
Odpowiedź
Secure attachment.
Karta 362
Pytanie
How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
Odpowiedź
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
Karta 363
Pytanie
Authoritative parenting?
Odpowiedź
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
Karta 364
Pytanie
Identity achievement?
Odpowiedź
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
Karta 365
Pytanie
Avoidant attachment pattern?
Odpowiedź
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
Karta 366
Pytanie
Classical conditioning?
Odpowiedź
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
Karta 367
Pytanie
Unconditioned stimulus?
Odpowiedź
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
Karta 368
Pytanie
Unconditioned response?
Odpowiedź
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
Karta 369
Pytanie
Conditioned stimulus?
Odpowiedź
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
Karta 370
Pytanie
Conditioned response?
Odpowiedź
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Karta 371
Pytanie
Acquisition in classical conditioning?
Odpowiedź
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Karta 372
Pytanie
During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
Odpowiedź
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
Karta 373
Pytanie
Authoritarian parenting?
Odpowiedź
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
Karta 374
Pytanie
Identity diffusion?
Odpowiedź
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
Karta 375
Pytanie
Extinction in classical conditioning?
Odpowiedź
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
Karta 376
Pytanie
Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
Odpowiedź
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
Karta 377
Pytanie
Permissive parenting?
Odpowiedź
High warmth with few demands or limits.
Karta 378
Pytanie
Parallel play?
Odpowiedź
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
Karta 379
Pytanie
Imaginary audience?
Odpowiedź
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
Karta 380
Pytanie
Identity foreclosure?
Odpowiedź
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
Karta 381
Pytanie
Disorganized attachment pattern?
Odpowiedź
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
Karta 382
Pytanie
Neglectful parenting?
Odpowiedź
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
Karta 383
Pytanie
Chronosystem?
Odpowiedź
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
Karta 384
Pytanie
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
Odpowiedź
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
Karta 385
Pytanie
Personal fable?
Odpowiedź
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
Karta 386
Pytanie
Identity moratorium?
Odpowiedź
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
Karta 387
Pytanie
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
Odpowiedź
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
Karta 388
Pytanie
Separation anxiety in infancy?
Odpowiedź
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
Karta 389
Pytanie
What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
Odpowiedź
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
Karta 390
Pytanie
Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
Odpowiedź
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
Karta 391
Pytanie
Emerging adulthood?
Odpowiedź
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
Karta 392
Pytanie
Social clock?
Odpowiedź
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
Karta 393
Pytanie
Erikson's later-adult conflict?
Odpowiedź
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
Karta 394
Pytanie
Possible selves?
Odpowiedź
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
Karta 395
Pytanie
Stimulus generalization?
Odpowiedź
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
Karta 396
Pytanie
Operant conditioning?
Odpowiedź
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
Karta 397
Pytanie
Law of effect?
Odpowiedź
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
Karta 398
Pytanie
Spontaneous recovery?
Odpowiedź
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
Karta 399
Pytanie
Stimulus discrimination?
Odpowiedź
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
Karta 400
Pytanie
Reinforcement?
Odpowiedź
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
Karta 401
Pytanie
Higher-order conditioning?
Odpowiedź
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
Karta 402
Pytanie
Counterconditioning?
Odpowiedź
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
Karta 403
Pytanie
Habituation?
Odpowiedź
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
Karta 404
Pytanie
Punishment?
Odpowiedź
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
Karta 405
Pytanie
Partial reinforcement?
Odpowiedź
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
Karta 406
Pytanie
Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
Odpowiedź
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
Karta 407
Pytanie
Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
Odpowiedź
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
Karta 408
Pytanie
Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
Odpowiedź
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
Karta 409
Pytanie
Fixed-ratio schedule?
Odpowiedź
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
Karta 410
Pytanie
Observational learning?
Odpowiedź
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
Karta 411
Pytanie
A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
Odpowiedź
Positive reinforcement.
Karta 412
Pytanie
Primary reinforcer?
Odpowiedź
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
Karta 413
Pytanie
Variable-ratio schedule?
Odpowiedź
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
Karta 414
Pytanie
Modeling?
Odpowiedź
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
Karta 415
Pytanie
Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
Odpowiedź
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
Karta 416
Pytanie
Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
Odpowiedź
Negative reinforcement.
Karta 417
Pytanie
Conditioned reinforcer?
Odpowiedź
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
Karta 418
Pytanie
A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
Odpowiedź
Vicarious reinforcement.
Karta 419
Pytanie
Fixed-interval schedule?
Odpowiedź
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
Karta 420
Pytanie
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
Odpowiedź
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
Karta 421
Pytanie
A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
Odpowiedź
Positive punishment.
Karta 422
Pytanie
Shaping?
Odpowiedź
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
Karta 423
Pytanie
Extinction in operant conditioning?
Odpowiedź
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
Karta 424
Pytanie
Variable-interval schedule?
Odpowiedź
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
Karta 425
Pytanie
A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
Odpowiedź
Negative punishment.
Karta 426
Pytanie
Learned helplessness?
Odpowiedź
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
Karta 427
Pytanie
Continuous reinforcement?
Odpowiedź
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
Karta 428
Pytanie
A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
Odpowiedź
A fixed-interval schedule.
Karta 429
Pytanie
Discriminative stimulus?
Odpowiedź
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
Karta 430
Pytanie
Operant generalization versus discrimination?
Odpowiedź
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
Karta 431
Pytanie
Instinctive drift?
Odpowiedź
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
Karta 432
Pytanie
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
Odpowiedź
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
Karta 433
Pytanie
How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
Odpowiedź
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
Karta 434
Pytanie
How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
Odpowiedź
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
Karta 435
Pytanie
Vicarious conditioning?
Odpowiedź
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
Karta 436
Pytanie
A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
Odpowiedź
A variable-interval schedule.
Karta 437
Pytanie
Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
Odpowiedź
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
Karta 438
Pytanie
Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
Odpowiedź
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
Karta 439
Pytanie
Latent learning?
Odpowiedź
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
Karta 440
Pytanie
Cognitive map?
Odpowiedź
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
Karta 441
Pytanie
Insight learning?
Odpowiedź
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
Karta 442
Pytanie
Biological preparedness?
Odpowiedź
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
Karta 443
Pytanie
What can mirror-neuron activity show?
Odpowiedź
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
Karta 444
Pytanie
Attribution?
Odpowiedź
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
Karta 445
Pytanie
Attitude?
Odpowiedź
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
Karta 446
Pytanie
Upward social comparison?
Odpowiedź
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
Karta 447
Pytanie
Optimistic explanatory style?
Odpowiedź
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
Karta 448
Pytanie
Situational attribution?
Odpowiedź
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
Karta 449
Pytanie
A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
Odpowiedź
Cognitive dissonance.
Karta 450
Pytanie
Downward social comparison?
Odpowiedź
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
Karta 451
Pytanie
Internal locus of control?
Odpowiedź
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
Karta 452
Pytanie
Dispositional attribution?
Odpowiedź
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
Karta 453
Pytanie
Pessimistic explanatory style?
Odpowiedź
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
Karta 454
Pytanie
Relative deprivation?
Odpowiedź
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
Karta 455
Pytanie
External locus of control?
Odpowiedź
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
Karta 456
Pytanie
Fundamental attribution error?
Odpowiedź
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
Karta 457
Pytanie
Halo effect?
Odpowiedź
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
Karta 458
Pytanie
Self-fulfilling prophecy?
Odpowiedź
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
Karta 459
Pytanie
Mere-exposure effect?
Odpowiedź
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
Karta 460
Pytanie
A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
Odpowiedź
The actor–observer difference.
Karta 461
Pytanie
A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
Odpowiedź
The central route.
Karta 462
Pytanie
Effort justification?
Odpowiedź
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
Karta 463
Pytanie
Stereotype?
Odpowiedź
A generalized belief about members of a group.
Karta 464
Pytanie
A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
Odpowiedź
Self-serving bias.
Karta 465
Pytanie
A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
Odpowiedź
The peripheral route.
Karta 466
Pytanie
Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
Odpowiedź
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
Karta 467
Pytanie
Prejudice?
Odpowiedź
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
Karta 468
Pytanie
The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:
Workload Errors Low 2 High 8 Which attribution is better supported?
Odpowiedź
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
Karta 469
Pytanie
Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
Odpowiedź
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
Karta 470
Pytanie
Conformity?
Odpowiedź
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
Karta 471
Pytanie
Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
Odpowiedź
The bystander effect.
Karta 472
Pytanie
Diffusion of responsibility?
Odpowiedź
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
Karta 473
Pytanie
How can taking on a role affect attitude?
Odpowiedź
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
Karta 474
Pytanie
In-group bias?
Odpowiedź
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
Karta 475
Pytanie
After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
Odpowiedź
The foot-in-the-door technique.
Karta 476
Pytanie
A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
Odpowiedź
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
Karta 477
Pytanie
When do attitudes best predict behavior?
Odpowiedź
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
Karta 478
Pytanie
Discrimination?
Odpowiedź
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
Karta 479
Pytanie
Out-group homogeneity effect?
Odpowiedź
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
Karta 480
Pytanie
After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
Odpowiedź
The door-in-the-face technique.
Karta 481
Pytanie
A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
Odpowiedź
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
Karta 482
Pytanie
Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
Odpowiedź
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
Karta 483
Pytanie
Just-world belief?
Odpowiedź
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
Karta 484
Pytanie
Implicit attitude?
Odpowiedź
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
Karta 485
Pytanie
Ethnocentrism?
Odpowiedź
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
Karta 486
Pytanie
How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
Odpowiedź
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
Karta 487
Pytanie
Normative social influence?
Odpowiedź
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
Karta 488
Pytanie
Psychodynamic view of personality?
Odpowiedź
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
Karta 489
Pytanie
Norm of reciprocity?
Odpowiedź
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
Karta 490
Pytanie
Individualism?
Odpowiedź
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
Karta 491
Pytanie
Informational social influence?
Odpowiedź
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
Karta 492
Pytanie
Id?
Odpowiedź
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
Karta 493
Pytanie
Altruism?
Odpowiedź
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
Karta 494
Pytanie
Social norm?
Odpowiedź
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
Karta 495
Pytanie
What tends to increase conformity?
Odpowiedź
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
Karta 496
Pytanie
Ego?
Odpowiedź
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
Karta 497
Pytanie
A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
Odpowiedź
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
Karta 498
Pytanie
Collectivism?
Odpowiedź
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
Karta 499
Pytanie
Obedience?
Odpowiedź
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
Karta 500
Pytanie
Superego?
Odpowiedź
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
Karta 501
Pytanie
A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
Odpowiedź
Denial.
Karta 502
Pytanie
Social-responsibility norm?
Odpowiedź
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
Karta 503
Pytanie
How does proximity affect attraction?
Odpowiedź
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
Karta 504
Pytanie
What tends to increase obedience?
Odpowiedź
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
Karta 505
Pytanie
After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
Odpowiedź
Displacement.
Karta 506
Pytanie
Social loafing?
Odpowiedź
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
Karta 507
Pytanie
Multiculturalism?
Odpowiedź
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
Karta 508
Pytanie
How does similarity affect attraction?
Odpowiedź
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
Karta 509
Pytanie
A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
Odpowiedź
Projection.
Karta 510
Pytanie
Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
Odpowiedź
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
Karta 511
Pytanie
Deindividuation?
Odpowiedź
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
Karta 512
Pytanie
Group polarization?
Odpowiedź
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
Karta 513
Pytanie
After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
Odpowiedź
Rationalization.
Karta 514
Pytanie
A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
Odpowiedź
Groupthink.
Karta 515
Pytanie
Pluralistic ignorance?
Odpowiedź
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
Karta 516
Pytanie
Social trap?
Odpowiedź
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
Karta 517
Pytanie
Reaction formation?
Odpowiedź
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
Karta 518
Pytanie
Superordinate goal?
Odpowiedź
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
Karta 519
Pytanie
False-consensus effect?
Odpowiedź
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
Karta 520
Pytanie
Industrial-organizational psychology?
Odpowiedź
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
Karta 521
Pytanie
Repression?
Odpowiedź
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
Karta 522
Pytanie
Burnout?
Odpowiedź
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
Karta 523
Pytanie
Unconditional positive regard?
Odpowiedź
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
Karta 524
Pytanie
Trait?
Odpowiedź
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
Karta 525
Pytanie
Regression as a defense mechanism?
Odpowiedź
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
Karta 526
Pytanie
Reciprocal determinism?
Odpowiedź
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
Karta 527
Pytanie
Self-efficacy?
Odpowiedź
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
Karta 528
Pytanie
Self-concept in humanistic theory?
Odpowiedź
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
Karta 529
Pytanie
Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
Odpowiedź
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
Karta 530
Pytanie
A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Odpowiedź
Openness.
Karta 531
Pytanie
Personality inventory?
Odpowiedź
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
Karta 532
Pytanie
Self-actualizing tendency?
Odpowiedź
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
Karta 533
Pytanie
Self-esteem?
Odpowiedź
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
Karta 534
Pytanie
Instinct in motivation research?
Odpowiedź
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
Karta 535
Pytanie
A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Odpowiedź
Conscientiousness.
Karta 536
Pytanie
Projective test?
Odpowiedź
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
Karta 537
Pytanie
How does factor analysis help trait research?
Odpowiedź
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
Karta 538
Pytanie
Drive-reduction theory?
Odpowiedź
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
Karta 539
Pytanie
A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Odpowiedź
Extraversion.
Karta 540
Pytanie
Person–situation debate?
Odpowiedź
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
Karta 541
Pytanie
A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
Odpowiedź
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
Karta 542
Pytanie
Homeostasis?
Odpowiedź
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
Karta 543
Pytanie
Incentive theory?
Odpowiedź
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
Karta 544
Pytanie
Big Five agreeableness?
Odpowiedź
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
Karta 545
Pytanie
A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
Odpowiedź
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
Karta 546
Pytanie
A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
Odpowiedź
An approach–approach conflict.
Karta 547
Pytanie
Arousal theory of motivation?
Odpowiedź
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
Karta 548
Pytanie
Big Five emotional stability?
Odpowiedź
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
Karta 549
Pytanie
What regulates hunger?
Odpowiedź
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
Karta 550
Pytanie
Three broad components of emotion?
Odpowiedź
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
Karta 551
Pytanie
Self-determination theory?
Odpowiedź
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
Karta 552
Pytanie
Emotion regulation?
Odpowiedź
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
Karta 553
Pytanie
Sensation-seeking?
Odpowiedź
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
Karta 554
Pytanie
Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
Odpowiedź
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
Karta 555
Pytanie
Intrinsic motivation?
Odpowiedź
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
Karta 556
Pytanie
Display rules?
Odpowiedź
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
Karta 557
Pytanie
Arousal and performance relationship?
Odpowiedź
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
Karta 558
Pytanie
A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
Odpowiedź
An approach–avoidance conflict.
Karta 559
Pytanie
Extrinsic motivation?
Odpowiedź
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
Karta 560
Pytanie
Achievement motivation?
Odpowiedź
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
Karta 561
Pytanie
Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
Odpowiedź
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
Karta 562
Pytanie
A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
Odpowiedź
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
Karta 563
Pytanie
Overjustification effect?
Odpowiedź
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
Karta 564
Pytanie
Belongingness motivation?
Odpowiedź
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
Karta 565
Pytanie
Study time changed after students chose their own topic:
Condition Mean minutes Assigned topic 34 Chosen topic 47 What is the observed mean difference?
Odpowiedź
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
Karta 566
Pytanie
Facial-feedback effect?
Odpowiedź
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
Karta 567
Pytanie
Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
Odpowiedź
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
Karta 568
Pytanie
A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
Odpowiedź
Cognitive reappraisal.
Karta 569
Pytanie
Broaden-and-build view?
Odpowiedź
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
Karta 570
Pytanie
Which emotions often appear across cultures?
Odpowiedź
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
Karta 571
Pytanie
How can the same arousal become different emotions?
Odpowiedź
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
Karta 572
Pytanie
Expressive suppression?
Odpowiedź
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
Karta 573
Pytanie
How does acute stress affect the body?
Odpowiedź
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
Karta 574
Pytanie
Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
Odpowiedź
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
Karta 575
Pytanie
In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
Odpowiedź
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
Karta 576
Pytanie
A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
Odpowiedź
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
Karta 577
Pytanie
Health psychology?
Odpowiedź
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
Karta 578
Pytanie
Positive psychology?
Odpowiedź
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
Karta 579
Pytanie
Stress?
Odpowiedź
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
Karta 580
Pytanie
A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
Odpowiedź
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
Karta 581
Pytanie
Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
Odpowiedź
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
Karta 582
Pytanie
Resilience?
Odpowiedź
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
Karta 583
Pytanie
Stressor?
Odpowiedź
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
Karta 584
Pytanie
General adaptation syndrome?
Odpowiedź
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
Karta 585
Pytanie
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
Odpowiedź
Problem-focused coping.
Karta 586
Pytanie
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
Odpowiedź
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
Karta 587
Pytanie
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
Odpowiedź
Primary appraisal.
Karta 588
Pytanie
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
Odpowiedź
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
Karta 589
Pytanie
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
Odpowiedź
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
Karta 590
Pytanie
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
Odpowiedź
Emotion-focused coping.
Karta 591
Pytanie
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
Odpowiedź
Secondary appraisal.
Karta 592
Pytanie
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
Odpowiedź
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
Karta 593
Pytanie
Adverse childhood experiences?
Odpowiedź
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
Karta 594
Pytanie
How can social support protect health?
Odpowiedź
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
Karta 595
Pytanie
Eustress versus distress?
Odpowiedź
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
Karta 596
Pytanie
Tend-and-befriend response?
Odpowiedź
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
Karta 597
Pytanie
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
Odpowiedź
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
Karta 598
Pytanie
Biofeedback?
Odpowiedź
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
Karta 599
Pytanie
How does perceived control affect stress?
Odpowiedź
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
Karta 600
Pytanie
Psychoneuroimmunology?
Odpowiedź
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
Karta 601
Pytanie
Subjective well-being?
Odpowiedź
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
Karta 602
Pytanie
Psychological disorder?
Odpowiedź
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
Karta 603
Pytanie
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
Odpowiedź
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
Karta 604
Pytanie
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
Odpowiedź
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
Karta 605
Pytanie
Signature strengths?
Odpowiedź
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
Karta 606
Pytanie
Biopsychosocial model?
Odpowiedź
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
Karta 607
Pytanie
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
Odpowiedź
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
Karta 608
Pytanie
Posttraumatic growth?
Odpowiedź
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
Karta 609
Pytanie
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
Odpowiedź
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
Karta 610
Pytanie
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
Odpowiedź
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
Karta 611
Pytanie
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
Odpowiedź
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
Karta 612
Pytanie
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
Odpowiedź
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
Karta 613
Pytanie
Biological explanation of disorder?
Odpowiedź
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
Karta 614
Pytanie
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
Odpowiedź
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
Karta 615
Pytanie
Purpose of the DSM?
Odpowiedź
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
Karta 616
Pytanie
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
Odpowiedź
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
Karta 617
Pytanie
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
Odpowiedź
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
Karta 618
Pytanie
Autism spectrum disorder?
Odpowiedź
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
Karta 619
Pytanie
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
Odpowiedź
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
Karta 620
Pytanie
Major depressive disorder?
Odpowiedź
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
Karta 621
Pytanie
Specific phobia?
Odpowiedź
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
Karta 622
Pytanie
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
Odpowiedź
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
Karta 623
Pytanie
Dissociative amnesia?
Odpowiedź
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
Karta 624
Pytanie
Bipolar I disorder?
Odpowiedź
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
Karta 625
Pytanie
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
Odpowiedź
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
Karta 626
Pytanie
Anorexia nervosa?
Odpowiedź
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
Karta 627
Pytanie
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
Odpowiedź
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
Karta 628
Pytanie
Bipolar II disorder?
Odpowiedź
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
Karta 629
Pytanie
Purpose of the ICD?
Odpowiedź
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
Karta 630
Pytanie
Bulimia nervosa?
Odpowiedź
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
Karta 631
Pytanie
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
Odpowiedź
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
Karta 632
Pytanie
Ataque de nervios?
Odpowiedź
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
Karta 633
Pytanie
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
Odpowiedź
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
Karta 634
Pytanie
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
Odpowiedź
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
Karta 635
Pytanie
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
Odpowiedź
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
Karta 636
Pytanie
Comorbidity?
Odpowiedź
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
Karta 637
Pytanie
Humanistic explanation of distress?
Odpowiedź
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
Karta 638
Pytanie
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
Odpowiedź
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
Karta 639
Pytanie
Stigma around mental disorder?
Odpowiedź
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
Karta 640
Pytanie
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
Odpowiedź
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
Karta 641
Pytanie
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
Odpowiedź
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
Karta 642
Pytanie
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
Odpowiedź
Interrater reliability.
Karta 643
Pytanie
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
Odpowiedź
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
Karta 644
Pytanie
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
Odpowiedź
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
Karta 645
Pytanie
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
Odpowiedź
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
Karta 646
Pytanie
Delusion?
Odpowiedź
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
Karta 647
Pytanie
Agoraphobia?
Odpowiedź
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
Karta 648
Pytanie
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
Odpowiedź
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
Karta 649
Pytanie
Eclectic approach to disorder?
Odpowiedź
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
Karta 650
Pytanie
Hallucination?
Odpowiedź
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
Karta 651
Pytanie
Panic disorder?
Odpowiedź
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
Karta 652
Pytanie
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
Odpowiedź
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
Karta 653
Pytanie
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
Odpowiedź
The diathesis–stress model.
Karta 654
Pytanie
Cluster A personality disorders?
Odpowiedź
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
Karta 655
Pytanie
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
Odpowiedź
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
Karta 656
Pytanie
Evidence-based treatment?
Odpowiedź
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
Karta 657
Pytanie
Therapeutic alliance?
Odpowiedź
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
Karta 658
Pytanie
Cultural humility in therapy?
Odpowiedź
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
Karta 659
Pytanie
Deinstitutionalization?
Odpowiedź
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
Karta 660
Pytanie
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
Odpowiedź
Exposure therapy.
Karta 661
Pytanie
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
Odpowiedź
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
Karta 662
Pytanie
Four medication categories in the course?
Odpowiedź
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
Karta 663
Pytanie
Depressive cognitive triad?
Odpowiedź
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
Karta 664
Pytanie
Applied behavior analysis?
Odpowiedź
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
Karta 665
Pytanie
Psychosurgery?
Odpowiedź
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
Karta 666
Pytanie
Free association?
Odpowiedź
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
Karta 667
Pytanie
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
Odpowiedź
Cognitive restructuring.
Karta 668
Pytanie
One advantage of group therapy?
Odpowiedź
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
Karta 669
Pytanie
Lobotomy?
Odpowiedź
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
Karta 670
Pytanie
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
Odpowiedź
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
Karta 671
Pytanie
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
Odpowiedź
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
Karta 672
Pytanie
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
Odpowiedź
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
Karta 673
Pytanie
Social anxiety disorder?
Odpowiedź
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
Karta 674
Pytanie
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
Odpowiedź
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
Karta 675
Pytanie
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
Odpowiedź
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
Karta 676
Pytanie
Dissociative fugue?
Odpowiedź
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
Karta 677
Pytanie
Cluster B personality disorders?
Odpowiedź
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
Karta 678
Pytanie
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
Odpowiedź
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
Karta 679
Pytanie
Catatonia?
Odpowiedź
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
Karta 680
Pytanie
Manic episode?
Odpowiedź
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
Karta 681
Pytanie
Dissociative identity disorder?
Odpowiedź
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
Karta 682
Pytanie
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
Odpowiedź
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
Karta 683
Pytanie
Cluster C personality disorders?
Odpowiedź
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
Karta 684
Pytanie
Taijin kyofusho?
Odpowiedź
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
Karta 685
Pytanie
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
Odpowiedź
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
Karta 686
Pytanie
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
Odpowiedź
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
Karta 687
Pytanie
Hypomanic episode?
Odpowiedź
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
Karta 688
Pytanie
Generalized anxiety disorder?
Odpowiedź
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
Karta 689
Pytanie
Hoarding disorder?
Odpowiedź
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
Karta 690
Pytanie
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
Odpowiedź
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
Karta 691
Pytanie
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
Odpowiedź
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
Karta 692
Pytanie
Persistent depressive disorder?
Odpowiedź
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
Karta 693
Pytanie
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
Odpowiedź
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
Karta 694
Pytanie
Systematic desensitization?
Odpowiedź
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
Karta 695
Pytanie
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
Odpowiedź
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
Karta 696
Pytanie
Dialectical behavior therapy?
Odpowiedź
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
Karta 697
Pytanie
Integrity in therapy ethics?
Odpowiedź
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
Karta 698
Pytanie
Aversion therapy?
Odpowiedź
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
Karta 699
Pytanie
Tardive dyskinesia?
Odpowiedź
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
Karta 700
Pytanie
ECT versus TMS?
Odpowiedź
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
Karta 701
Pytanie
Respect for rights and dignity?
Odpowiedź
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
Karta 702
Pytanie
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
Odpowiedź
A token economy.
Karta 703
Pytanie
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
Odpowiedź
Person-centered therapy.
Karta 704
Pytanie
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
Odpowiedź
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
Karta 705
Pytanie
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
Odpowiedź
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.
705 kart
AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
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