AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
Review all five AP® Psychology units with 705 independently written cards covering concepts, scenarios, research methods, data interpretation, and evidence-based reasoning.
Um þennan stokk
Review all five units in the AP® Psychology course framework with 705 independently written English flashcards. The deck covers Biological Bases of Behavior, Cognition, Development and Learning, Social Psychology and Personality, and Mental and Physical Health. It supports all four science practices: Concept Application, Research Methods and Design, Data Interpretation, and Argumentation.
What the cards ask you to retrieve
- Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
- Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
- Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
- Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
- Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.
The order follows Units 1–5, keeps related material within the current or next topic, and introduces prerequisites and chronological steps first. Definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are separated by at least three unrelated cards. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences remain adjacent only when that progression helps learning.
What's deliberately left out
The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or use long essay prompts. It also leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.
Check the official AP Psychology course page for authoritative requirements. Psychological facts and the course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, ordering, and inherited generated cover, to the extent those rights exist.
This is an independent, unofficial study aid. It isn't affiliated with, endorsed by, sponsored by, or official material from College Board or the AP Program. AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this product. No College Board examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or trade dress were copied or adapted.
Spjöld í þessum stokki
Spjald 1
Spurning
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
Svar
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
Spjald 2
Spurning
Central nervous system?
Svar
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
Spjald 3
Spurning
Main role of the spinal cord?
Svar
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
Spjald 4
Spurning
Scores are
4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?Svar
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
Spjald 5
Spurning
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
Svar
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
Spjald 6
Spurning
Peripheral nervous system?
Svar
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
Spjald 7
Spurning
Reflex arc?
Svar
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
Spjald 8
Spurning
Reflex times are
180, 190, 210, 260, 410milliseconds. What is the median?Svar
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
Spjald 9
Spurning
Heritability?
Svar
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
Spjald 10
Spurning
Autonomic nervous system?
Svar
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
Spjald 11
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Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
Svar
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
Spjald 12
Spurning
Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
Svar
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
Spjald 13
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Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
Svar
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
Spjald 14
Spurning
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
Svar
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
Spjald 15
Spurning
Natural selection?
Svar
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
Spjald 16
Spurning
Somatic nervous system?
Svar
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
Spjald 17
Spurning
Sensory neurons?
Svar
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
Spjald 18
Spurning
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
Svar
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
Spjald 19
Spurning
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
Svar
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
Spjald 20
Spurning
Sympathetic nervous system?
Svar
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
Spjald 21
Spurning
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
Svar
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
Spjald 22
Spurning
Motor neurons?
Svar
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
Spjald 23
Spurning
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
Svar
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
Spjald 24
Spurning
Parasympathetic nervous system?
Svar
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
Spjald 25
Spurning
Resting potential?
Svar
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
Spjald 26
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Interneurons?
Svar
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
Spjald 27
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Adrenaline's behavioral role?
Svar
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
Spjald 28
Spurning
Frontal lobes?
Svar
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
Spjald 29
Spurning
Neural threshold?
Svar
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
Spjald 30
Spurning
Corpus callosum?
Svar
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
Spjald 31
Spurning
Leptin's role in eating?
Svar
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
Spjald 32
Spurning
Temporal lobes?
Svar
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
Spjald 33
Spurning
Depolarization during an action potential?
Svar
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
Spjald 34
Spurning
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
Svar
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
Spjald 35
Spurning
Ghrelin's role in eating?
Svar
It helps stimulate hunger.
Spjald 36
Spurning
Drug agonist?
Svar
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
Spjald 37
Spurning
Action potential?
Svar
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
Spjald 38
Spurning
Reuptake?
Svar
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
Spjald 39
Spurning
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
Svar
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
Spjald 40
Spurning
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
Svar
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
Spjald 41
Spurning
Refractory period?
Svar
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
Spjald 42
Spurning
Melatonin's role?
Svar
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
Spjald 43
Spurning
Drug antagonist?
Svar
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
Spjald 44
Spurning
Stimulants?
Svar
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
Spjald 45
Spurning
Drug tolerance?
Svar
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
Spjald 46
Spurning
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Svar
Multiple sclerosis.
Spjald 47
Spurning
All-or-none principle?
Svar
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
Spjald 48
Spurning
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
Svar
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
Spjald 49
Spurning
GABA's major psychological function?
Svar
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
Spjald 50
Spurning
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
Svar
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
Spjald 51
Spurning
Reuptake inhibitor?
Svar
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
Spjald 52
Spurning
Depressants?
Svar
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
Spjald 53
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Drug withdrawal?
Svar
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
Spjald 54
Spurning
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Svar
Myasthenia gravis.
Spjald 55
Spurning
Glial cells?
Svar
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
Spjald 56
Spurning
Endorphins?
Svar
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
Spjald 57
Spurning
Substance P?
Svar
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
Spjald 58
Spurning
Acetylcholine's major functions?
Svar
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
Spjald 59
Spurning
Opioids?
Svar
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
Spjald 60
Spurning
Hallucinogens?
Svar
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
Spjald 61
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Addiction?
Svar
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
Spjald 62
Spurning
Parietal lobes?
Svar
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
Spjald 63
Spurning
Consciousness?
Svar
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
Spjald 64
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Circadian rhythm?
Svar
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
Spjald 65
Spurning
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
Svar
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
Spjald 66
Spurning
Occipital lobes?
Svar
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
Spjald 67
Spurning
What does split-brain research reveal?
Svar
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
Spjald 68
Spurning
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
Svar
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
Spjald 69
Spurning
NREM-1 sleep?
Svar
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
Spjald 70
Spurning
Motor cortex?
Svar
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
Spjald 71
Spurning
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
Svar
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
Spjald 72
Spurning
Brainstem's core function?
Svar
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
Spjald 73
Spurning
NREM-2 sleep?
Svar
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
Spjald 74
Spurning
Somatosensory cortex?
Svar
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
Spjald 75
Spurning
Medulla's main functions?
Svar
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Spjald 76
Spurning
Reticular activating system?
Svar
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
Spjald 77
Spurning
NREM-3 sleep?
Svar
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
Spjald 78
Spurning
Cerebellum's main functions?
Svar
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
Spjald 79
Spurning
Thalamus?
Svar
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
Spjald 80
Spurning
Hypothalamus?
Svar
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
Spjald 81
Spurning
REM sleep?
Svar
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
Spjald 82
Spurning
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
Svar
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
Spjald 83
Spurning
Amygdala?
Svar
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
Spjald 84
Spurning
Hippocampus?
Svar
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
Spjald 85
Spurning
How does sleep change across a typical night?
Svar
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
Spjald 86
Spurning
Contralateral brain control?
Svar
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
Spjald 87
Spurning
What does an EEG measure?
Svar
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
Spjald 88
Spurning
Reward-center activity?
Svar
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
Spjald 89
Spurning
Neuroplasticity?
Svar
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
Spjald 90
Spurning
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
Svar
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
Spjald 91
Spurning
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
Svar
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
Spjald 92
Spurning
Insomnia?
Svar
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
Spjald 93
Spurning
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
Svar
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
Spjald 94
Spurning
Absolute threshold?
Svar
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
Spjald 95
Spurning
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
Svar
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
Spjald 96
Spurning
Narcolepsy?
Svar
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
Spjald 97
Spurning
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
Svar
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
Spjald 98
Spurning
Difference threshold?
Svar
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
Spjald 99
Spurning
Consolidation view of dreams?
Svar
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
Spjald 100
Spurning
REM sleep behavior disorder?
Svar
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
Spjald 101
Spurning
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
Svar
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
Spjald 102
Spurning
Weber's law?
Svar
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
Spjald 103
Spurning
Two supported functions of sleep?
Svar
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
Spjald 104
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Sleep apnea?
Svar
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
Spjald 105
Spurning
REM rebound?
Svar
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
Spjald 106
Spurning
Signal detection theory?
Svar
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
Spjald 107
Spurning
Sensory transduction?
Svar
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
Spjald 108
Spurning
Vestibular sense?
Svar
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
Spjald 109
Spurning
Somnambulism?
Svar
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
Spjald 110
Spurning
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
Svar
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
Spjald 111
Spurning
What begins visual transduction?
Svar
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
Spjald 112
Spurning
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
Svar
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
Spjald 113
Spurning
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
Svar
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
Spjald 114
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Accommodation in vision?
Svar
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
Spjald 115
Spurning
Cones?
Svar
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
Spjald 116
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What begins auditory transduction?
Svar
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
Spjald 117
Spurning
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
Svar
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
Spjald 118
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How is smell unusual among the senses?
Svar
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
Spjald 119
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Kinesthesia?
Svar
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
Spjald 120
Spurning
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
Svar
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
Spjald 121
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Nearsightedness?
Svar
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
Spjald 122
Spurning
Pheromones?
Svar
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
Spjald 123
Spurning
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
Svar
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
Spjald 124
Spurning
Volley theory of pitch?
Svar
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
Spjald 125
Spurning
Farsightedness?
Svar
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
Spjald 126
Spurning
Six taste qualities named in the course?
Svar
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
Spjald 127
Spurning
Phantom-limb sensation?
Svar
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
Spjald 128
Spurning
Sensory interaction?
Svar
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
Spjald 129
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What causes most color-vision deficiency?
Svar
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
Spjald 130
Spurning
Prosopagnosia?
Svar
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
Spjald 131
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Rods?
Svar
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
Spjald 132
Spurning
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
Svar
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
Spjald 133
Spurning
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
Svar
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
Spjald 134
Spurning
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
Svar
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
Spjald 135
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What do the semicircular canals detect?
Svar
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
Spjald 136
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Synesthesia?
Svar
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
Spjald 137
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Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
Svar
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
Spjald 138
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Blindsight?
Svar
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
Spjald 139
Spurning
Sensory adaptation?
Svar
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
Spjald 140
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Gate-control view of pain?
Svar
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
Spjald 141
Spurning
Bottom-up processing?
Svar
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
Spjald 142
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Concept?
Svar
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Spjald 143
Spurning
Fixation in problem solving?
Svar
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
Spjald 144
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Algorithm?
Svar
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
Spjald 145
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Top-down processing?
Svar
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
Spjald 146
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Confirmation bias?
Svar
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
Spjald 147
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Retinal disparity?
Svar
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
Spjald 148
Spurning
Heuristic?
Svar
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
Spjald 149
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Selective attention?
Svar
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
Spjald 150
Spurning
Figure–ground organization?
Svar
Separating the object of attention from its background.
Spjald 151
Spurning
Convergence as a depth cue?
Svar
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
Spjald 152
Spurning
Representativeness heuristic?
Svar
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
Spjald 153
Spurning
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
Svar
Inattentional blindness.
Spjald 154
Spurning
Gestalt proximity principle?
Svar
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
Spjald 155
Spurning
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
Svar
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
Spjald 156
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Cocktail-party effect?
Svar
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
Spjald 157
Spurning
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
Svar
Change blindness.
Spjald 158
Spurning
Gestalt similarity principle?
Svar
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
Spjald 159
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Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
Svar
Linear perspective.
Spjald 160
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Perceptual constancy?
Svar
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
Spjald 161
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Perceptual set?
Svar
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
Spjald 162
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Gestalt closure principle?
Svar
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
Spjald 163
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One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
Svar
The blocking object, using interposition.
Spjald 164
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Apparent motion?
Svar
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
Spjald 165
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Availability heuristic?
Svar
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
Spjald 166
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Divergent thinking?
Svar
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
Spjald 167
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A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
Svar
Relative clarity.
Spjald 168
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Prototype?
Svar
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
Spjald 169
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Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
Svar
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
Spjald 170
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Convergent thinking?
Svar
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
Spjald 171
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A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
Svar
Texture gradient.
Spjald 172
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Belief perseverance?
Svar
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
Spjald 173
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Explicit memory?
Svar
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
Spjald 174
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Three stores in the multi-store model?
Svar
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Spjald 175
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Seeing an object only in its usual role?
Svar
Functional fixedness.
Spjald 176
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Mental set?
Svar
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
Spjald 177
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Episodic memory?
Svar
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
Spjald 178
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Working memory?
Svar
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
Spjald 179
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Insight?
Svar
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Spjald 180
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Framing effect?
Svar
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
Spjald 181
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Implicit memory?
Svar
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
Spjald 182
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Overconfidence bias?
Svar
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
Spjald 183
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Anchoring bias?
Svar
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
Spjald 184
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Schema in thinking?
Svar
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
Spjald 185
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Procedural memory?
Svar
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
Spjald 186
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Gambler's fallacy?
Svar
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
Spjald 187
Spurning
Sunk-cost fallacy?
Svar
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
Spjald 188
Spurning
Executive functions?
Svar
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
Spjald 189
Spurning
How can priming affect judgment?
Svar
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
Spjald 190
Spurning
Central executive in working memory?
Svar
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
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Spurning
Serial-position effect?
Svar
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
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Semantic memory?
Svar
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
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Levels-of-processing principle?
Svar
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
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Automatic processing?
Svar
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
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Maintenance rehearsal?
Svar
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
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Prospective memory?
Svar
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
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Primacy effect?
Svar
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
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Long-term memory?
Svar
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
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Spurning
Highly superior autobiographical memory?
Svar
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
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Effortful processing?
Svar
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
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Elaborative rehearsal?
Svar
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
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Memory consolidation?
Svar
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
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Recency effect?
Svar
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
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Spacing effect?
Svar
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
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Testing effect?
Svar
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
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Chunking?
Svar
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
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Mnemonic?
Svar
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
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Why organize material into a hierarchy?
Svar
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
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How can a schema help encoding?
Svar
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
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Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
Svar
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
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Iconic memory?
Svar
A very brief visual sensory memory.
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Recall?
Svar
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
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Retrieval cue?
Svar
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
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Encoding-specificity principle?
Svar
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
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Context-dependent memory?
Svar
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
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Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
Svar
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
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Echoic memory?
Svar
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
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Anterograde amnesia?
Svar
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
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Phonological loop?
Svar
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
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Cerebellum's memory role?
Svar
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
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Why is short-term memory described as limited?
Svar
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
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Retrograde amnesia?
Svar
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
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Spurning
Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
Svar
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
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How can the amygdala affect memory?
Svar
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
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Visuospatial sketchpad?
Svar
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
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Long-term potentiation?
Svar
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
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Spurning
Infantile amnesia?
Svar
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
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Spurning
Alzheimer's disease?
Svar
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
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Scores are
2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?Svar
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because
9 - 2 = 7.Spjald 230
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Recognition?
Svar
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
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Why is memory called reconstructive?
Svar
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
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Storage decay?
Svar
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
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State-dependent memory?
Svar
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
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Relearning?
Svar
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
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Misinformation effect?
Svar
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
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Spurning
A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
Svar
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
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Mood-congruent memory?
Svar
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
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Priming?
Svar
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
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Tip-of-the-tongue state?
Svar
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
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Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
Svar
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
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Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
Svar
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
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Metacognition?
Svar
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
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Source amnesia?
Svar
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
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Test standardization?
Svar
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
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Reliability?
Svar
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
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Stereotype threat?
Svar
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
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General intelligence, or g?
Svar
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
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Encoding failure?
Svar
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
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Validity?
Svar
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
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Proactive interference?
Svar
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
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Imagination inflation?
Svar
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
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A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
Svar
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
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Retrieval failure?
Svar
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
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Retroactive interference?
Svar
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
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A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
Svar
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
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Repression in psychodynamic theory?
Svar
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
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Flashbulb memory?
Svar
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
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A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
Svar
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
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A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
Svar
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
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Stereotype lift?
Svar
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
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Achievement test?
Svar
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
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Construct validity?
Svar
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
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Test–retest reliability?
Svar
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
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Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
Svar
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
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Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
Svar
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
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Aptitude test?
Svar
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
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Traditional IQ formula?
Svar
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
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Predictive validity?
Svar
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
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What does a normal score distribution look like?
Svar
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
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Split-half reliability?
Svar
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
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Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
Svar
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
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Flynn effect?
Svar
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
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A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
Svar
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
Spjald 274
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Continuous versus stage development?
Svar
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
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How can prenatal environment affect later development?
Svar
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
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Spurning
Teratogen?
Svar
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
Spjald 277
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Maturation?
Svar
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
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Stability–change question in development?
Svar
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
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A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
Svar
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
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Spurning
Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
Svar
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
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Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
Svar
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
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Spurning
Fine versus gross motor skills?
Svar
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
Spjald 283
Spurning
Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
Svar
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
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Spurning
What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
Svar
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
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Puberty?
Svar
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
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Sensitive period?
Svar
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
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Spurning
What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
Svar
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
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Spurning
Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
Svar
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
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Spurning
Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
Svar
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
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Spurning
Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
Svar
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
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Spurning
Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
Svar
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
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Menarche?
Svar
The first menstrual period.
Spjald 293
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Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
Svar
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
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Spurning
About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
Svar
About 68%.
Spjald 295
Spurning
A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
Svar
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
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Spurning
Spermarche?
Svar
The first ejaculation.
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Spurning
Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
Svar
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
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Spurning
Imprinting?
Svar
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
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Spurning
Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
Svar
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
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Spurning
Menopause?
Svar
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
Spjald 301
Spurning
Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
Svar
Naturalistic observation.
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How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
Svar
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
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Gender identity?
Svar
A person's internal sense of their gender.
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Gender role?
Svar
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
Spjald 305
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Sex versus gender?
Svar
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
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Common sensory change in later adulthood?
Svar
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
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Sexual orientation?
Svar
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
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Gender schema?
Svar
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
Spjald 309
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Best broad view of gender development?
Svar
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
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Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
Svar
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
Spjald 311
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Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
Svar
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
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Schema in cognitive development?
Svar
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
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Sensorimotor stage?
Svar
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
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Preoperational stage?
Svar
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
Spjald 315
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Assimilation?
Svar
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
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A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
Svar
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
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Animism in preoperational thought?
Svar
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
Spjald 318
Spurning
Concrete operational stage?
Svar
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
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Spurning
Accommodation?
Svar
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
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Spurning
Reversibility in cognitive development?
Svar
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
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How can social learning shape gender expression?
Svar
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
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A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
Svar
Assimilation.
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Spurning
Language?
Svar
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
Spjald 324
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Cooing stage?
Svar
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
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Babbling stage?
Svar
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
Spjald 326
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One-word stage?
Svar
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
Spjald 327
Spurning
Grammar?
Svar
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
Spjald 328
Spurning
A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
Svar
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
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Spurning
Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
Svar
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
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A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
Svar
Accommodation.
Spjald 331
Spurning
A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
Svar
Scaffolding.
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A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
Svar
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
Spjald 333
Spurning
Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
Svar
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
Spjald 334
Spurning
An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
Svar
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
Spjald 335
Spurning
Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
Svar
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
Spjald 336
Spurning
Formal operational stage?
Svar
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
Spjald 337
Spurning
Dementia?
Svar
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
Spjald 338
Spurning
Phoneme?
Svar
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
Spjald 339
Spurning
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
Svar
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
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Temperament?
Svar
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
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Attachment?
Svar
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
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Erikson's infancy conflict?
Svar
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
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Microsystem?
Svar
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
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Erikson's toddler conflict?
Svar
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
Spjald 345
Spurning
Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
Svar
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
Spjald 346
Spurning
Erikson's school-age conflict?
Svar
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
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Spurning
Mesosystem?
Svar
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
Spjald 348
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Erikson's adolescent conflict?
Svar
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
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Erikson's young-adult conflict?
Svar
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
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Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
Svar
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
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Exosystem?
Svar
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
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Morpheme?
Svar
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
Spjald 353
Spurning
Telegraphic speech?
Svar
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
705 spjöld
AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
Læra þennan stokk ókeypisNibomo opnast svo þú getir byrjað að læra.
Spjald 354
Spurning
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
Svar
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
Spjald 355
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Macrosystem?
Svar
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
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Semantics?
Svar
The meanings of words and sentences.
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A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
Svar
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
Spjald 358
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What does a sensitive period for language imply?
Svar
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
Spjald 359
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Does language completely determine thought?
Svar
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
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Syntax?
Svar
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
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A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
Svar
Secure attachment.
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How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
Svar
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
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Authoritative parenting?
Svar
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
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Identity achievement?
Svar
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
Spjald 365
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Avoidant attachment pattern?
Svar
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
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Classical conditioning?
Svar
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
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Unconditioned stimulus?
Svar
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
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Unconditioned response?
Svar
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
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Conditioned stimulus?
Svar
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
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Conditioned response?
Svar
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
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Acquisition in classical conditioning?
Svar
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
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During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
Svar
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
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Authoritarian parenting?
Svar
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
Spjald 374
Spurning
Identity diffusion?
Svar
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
Spjald 375
Spurning
Extinction in classical conditioning?
Svar
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
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Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
Svar
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
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Spurning
Permissive parenting?
Svar
High warmth with few demands or limits.
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Parallel play?
Svar
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
Spjald 379
Spurning
Imaginary audience?
Svar
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
Spjald 380
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Identity foreclosure?
Svar
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
Spjald 381
Spurning
Disorganized attachment pattern?
Svar
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
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Neglectful parenting?
Svar
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
Spjald 383
Spurning
Chronosystem?
Svar
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
Spjald 384
Spurning
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
Svar
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
Spjald 385
Spurning
Personal fable?
Svar
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
Spjald 386
Spurning
Identity moratorium?
Svar
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
Spjald 387
Spurning
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
Svar
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
Spjald 388
Spurning
Separation anxiety in infancy?
Svar
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
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What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
Svar
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
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Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
Svar
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
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Emerging adulthood?
Svar
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
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Social clock?
Svar
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
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Erikson's later-adult conflict?
Svar
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
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Possible selves?
Svar
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
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Stimulus generalization?
Svar
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
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Operant conditioning?
Svar
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
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Law of effect?
Svar
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
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Spontaneous recovery?
Svar
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
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Stimulus discrimination?
Svar
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
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Reinforcement?
Svar
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
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Higher-order conditioning?
Svar
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
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Counterconditioning?
Svar
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
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Habituation?
Svar
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
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Punishment?
Svar
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
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Partial reinforcement?
Svar
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
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Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
Svar
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
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Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
Svar
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
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Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
Svar
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
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Fixed-ratio schedule?
Svar
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
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Observational learning?
Svar
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
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A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
Svar
Positive reinforcement.
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Primary reinforcer?
Svar
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
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Variable-ratio schedule?
Svar
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
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Modeling?
Svar
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
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Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
Svar
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
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Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
Svar
Negative reinforcement.
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Conditioned reinforcer?
Svar
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
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A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
Svar
Vicarious reinforcement.
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Fixed-interval schedule?
Svar
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
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Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
Svar
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
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A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
Svar
Positive punishment.
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Shaping?
Svar
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
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Extinction in operant conditioning?
Svar
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
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Variable-interval schedule?
Svar
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
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A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
Svar
Negative punishment.
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Learned helplessness?
Svar
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
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Continuous reinforcement?
Svar
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
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A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
Svar
A fixed-interval schedule.
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Discriminative stimulus?
Svar
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
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Operant generalization versus discrimination?
Svar
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
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Instinctive drift?
Svar
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
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Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
Svar
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
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How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
Svar
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
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How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
Svar
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
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Vicarious conditioning?
Svar
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
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A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
Svar
A variable-interval schedule.
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Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
Svar
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
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Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
Svar
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
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Latent learning?
Svar
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
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Cognitive map?
Svar
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
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Insight learning?
Svar
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
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Biological preparedness?
Svar
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
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What can mirror-neuron activity show?
Svar
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
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Attribution?
Svar
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
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Attitude?
Svar
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
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Upward social comparison?
Svar
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
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Optimistic explanatory style?
Svar
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
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Situational attribution?
Svar
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
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A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
Svar
Cognitive dissonance.
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Downward social comparison?
Svar
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
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Internal locus of control?
Svar
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
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Dispositional attribution?
Svar
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
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Pessimistic explanatory style?
Svar
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
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Relative deprivation?
Svar
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
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External locus of control?
Svar
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
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Fundamental attribution error?
Svar
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
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Halo effect?
Svar
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
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Self-fulfilling prophecy?
Svar
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
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Mere-exposure effect?
Svar
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
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A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
Svar
The actor–observer difference.
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A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
Svar
The central route.
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Effort justification?
Svar
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
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Stereotype?
Svar
A generalized belief about members of a group.
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A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
Svar
Self-serving bias.
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A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
Svar
The peripheral route.
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Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
Svar
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
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Prejudice?
Svar
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
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The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:
Workload Errors Low 2 High 8 Which attribution is better supported?
Svar
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
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Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
Svar
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
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Conformity?
Svar
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
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Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
Svar
The bystander effect.
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Diffusion of responsibility?
Svar
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
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How can taking on a role affect attitude?
Svar
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
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In-group bias?
Svar
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
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After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
Svar
The foot-in-the-door technique.
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A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
Svar
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
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When do attitudes best predict behavior?
Svar
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
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Discrimination?
Svar
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
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Out-group homogeneity effect?
Svar
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
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After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
Svar
The door-in-the-face technique.
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A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
Svar
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
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Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
Svar
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
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Just-world belief?
Svar
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
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Implicit attitude?
Svar
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
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Ethnocentrism?
Svar
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
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How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
Svar
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
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Normative social influence?
Svar
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
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Psychodynamic view of personality?
Svar
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
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Norm of reciprocity?
Svar
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
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Individualism?
Svar
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
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Informational social influence?
Svar
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
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Id?
Svar
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
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Altruism?
Svar
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
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Social norm?
Svar
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
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What tends to increase conformity?
Svar
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
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Ego?
Svar
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
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A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
Svar
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
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Collectivism?
Svar
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
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Obedience?
Svar
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
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Superego?
Svar
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
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A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
Svar
Denial.
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Social-responsibility norm?
Svar
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
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How does proximity affect attraction?
Svar
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
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What tends to increase obedience?
Svar
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
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After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
Svar
Displacement.
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Social loafing?
Svar
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
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Multiculturalism?
Svar
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
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How does similarity affect attraction?
Svar
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
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A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
Svar
Projection.
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Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
Svar
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
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Deindividuation?
Svar
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
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Group polarization?
Svar
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
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After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
Svar
Rationalization.
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A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
Svar
Groupthink.
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Pluralistic ignorance?
Svar
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
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Social trap?
Svar
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
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Reaction formation?
Svar
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
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Superordinate goal?
Svar
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
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False-consensus effect?
Svar
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
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Industrial-organizational psychology?
Svar
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
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Repression?
Svar
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
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Burnout?
Svar
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
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Unconditional positive regard?
Svar
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
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Trait?
Svar
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
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Regression as a defense mechanism?
Svar
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
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Reciprocal determinism?
Svar
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
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Self-efficacy?
Svar
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
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Self-concept in humanistic theory?
Svar
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
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Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
Svar
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
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A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Svar
Openness.
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Personality inventory?
Svar
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
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Self-actualizing tendency?
Svar
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
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Self-esteem?
Svar
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
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Instinct in motivation research?
Svar
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
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A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Svar
Conscientiousness.
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Projective test?
Svar
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
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How does factor analysis help trait research?
Svar
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
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Drive-reduction theory?
Svar
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
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A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Svar
Extraversion.
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Person–situation debate?
Svar
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
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A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
Svar
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
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Homeostasis?
Svar
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
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Incentive theory?
Svar
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
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Big Five agreeableness?
Svar
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
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A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
Svar
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
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A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
Svar
An approach–approach conflict.
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Arousal theory of motivation?
Svar
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
Spjald 548
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Big Five emotional stability?
Svar
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
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What regulates hunger?
Svar
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
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Three broad components of emotion?
Svar
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
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Self-determination theory?
Svar
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
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Emotion regulation?
Svar
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
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Sensation-seeking?
Svar
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
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Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
Svar
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
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Intrinsic motivation?
Svar
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
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Display rules?
Svar
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
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Arousal and performance relationship?
Svar
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
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A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
Svar
An approach–avoidance conflict.
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Extrinsic motivation?
Svar
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
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Achievement motivation?
Svar
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
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Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
Svar
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
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A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
Svar
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
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Overjustification effect?
Svar
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
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Belongingness motivation?
Svar
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
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Study time changed after students chose their own topic:
Condition Mean minutes Assigned topic 34 Chosen topic 47 What is the observed mean difference?
Svar
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
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Facial-feedback effect?
Svar
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
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Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
Svar
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
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A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
Svar
Cognitive reappraisal.
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Broaden-and-build view?
Svar
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
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Which emotions often appear across cultures?
Svar
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
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How can the same arousal become different emotions?
Svar
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
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Expressive suppression?
Svar
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
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How does acute stress affect the body?
Svar
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
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Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
Svar
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
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In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
Svar
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
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A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
Svar
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
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Health psychology?
Svar
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
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Positive psychology?
Svar
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
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Stress?
Svar
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
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A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
Svar
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
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Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
Svar
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
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Resilience?
Svar
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
Spjald 583
Spurning
Stressor?
Svar
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
Spjald 584
Spurning
General adaptation syndrome?
Svar
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
Spjald 585
Spurning
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
Svar
Problem-focused coping.
Spjald 586
Spurning
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
Svar
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
Spjald 587
Spurning
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
Svar
Primary appraisal.
Spjald 588
Spurning
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
Svar
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
Spjald 589
Spurning
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
Svar
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
Spjald 590
Spurning
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
Svar
Emotion-focused coping.
Spjald 591
Spurning
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
Svar
Secondary appraisal.
Spjald 592
Spurning
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
Svar
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
Spjald 593
Spurning
Adverse childhood experiences?
Svar
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
Spjald 594
Spurning
How can social support protect health?
Svar
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
Spjald 595
Spurning
Eustress versus distress?
Svar
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
Spjald 596
Spurning
Tend-and-befriend response?
Svar
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
Spjald 597
Spurning
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
Svar
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
Spjald 598
Spurning
Biofeedback?
Svar
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
Spjald 599
Spurning
How does perceived control affect stress?
Svar
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
Spjald 600
Spurning
Psychoneuroimmunology?
Svar
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
Spjald 601
Spurning
Subjective well-being?
Svar
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
Spjald 602
Spurning
Psychological disorder?
Svar
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
Spjald 603
Spurning
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
Svar
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
Spjald 604
Spurning
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
Svar
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
Spjald 605
Spurning
Signature strengths?
Svar
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
Spjald 606
Spurning
Biopsychosocial model?
Svar
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
Spjald 607
Spurning
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
Svar
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
Spjald 608
Spurning
Posttraumatic growth?
Svar
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
Spjald 609
Spurning
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
Svar
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
Spjald 610
Spurning
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
Svar
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
Spjald 611
Spurning
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
Svar
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
Spjald 612
Spurning
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
Svar
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
Spjald 613
Spurning
Biological explanation of disorder?
Svar
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
Spjald 614
Spurning
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
Svar
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
Spjald 615
Spurning
Purpose of the DSM?
Svar
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
Spjald 616
Spurning
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
Svar
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
Spjald 617
Spurning
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
Svar
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
Spjald 618
Spurning
Autism spectrum disorder?
Svar
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
Spjald 619
Spurning
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
Svar
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
Spjald 620
Spurning
Major depressive disorder?
Svar
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
Spjald 621
Spurning
Specific phobia?
Svar
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
Spjald 622
Spurning
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
Svar
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
Spjald 623
Spurning
Dissociative amnesia?
Svar
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
Spjald 624
Spurning
Bipolar I disorder?
Svar
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
Spjald 625
Spurning
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
Svar
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
Spjald 626
Spurning
Anorexia nervosa?
Svar
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
Spjald 627
Spurning
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
Svar
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
Spjald 628
Spurning
Bipolar II disorder?
Svar
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
Spjald 629
Spurning
Purpose of the ICD?
Svar
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
Spjald 630
Spurning
Bulimia nervosa?
Svar
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
Spjald 631
Spurning
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
Svar
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
Spjald 632
Spurning
Ataque de nervios?
Svar
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
Spjald 633
Spurning
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
Svar
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
Spjald 634
Spurning
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
Svar
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
Spjald 635
Spurning
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
Svar
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
Spjald 636
Spurning
Comorbidity?
Svar
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
Spjald 637
Spurning
Humanistic explanation of distress?
Svar
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
Spjald 638
Spurning
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
Svar
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
Spjald 639
Spurning
Stigma around mental disorder?
Svar
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
Spjald 640
Spurning
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
Svar
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
Spjald 641
Spurning
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
Svar
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
Spjald 642
Spurning
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
Svar
Interrater reliability.
Spjald 643
Spurning
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
Svar
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
Spjald 644
Spurning
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
Svar
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
Spjald 645
Spurning
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
Svar
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
Spjald 646
Spurning
Delusion?
Svar
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
Spjald 647
Spurning
Agoraphobia?
Svar
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
Spjald 648
Spurning
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
Svar
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
Spjald 649
Spurning
Eclectic approach to disorder?
Svar
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
Spjald 650
Spurning
Hallucination?
Svar
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
Spjald 651
Spurning
Panic disorder?
Svar
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
Spjald 652
Spurning
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
Svar
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
Spjald 653
Spurning
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
Svar
The diathesis–stress model.
Spjald 654
Spurning
Cluster A personality disorders?
Svar
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
Spjald 655
Spurning
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
Svar
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
Spjald 656
Spurning
Evidence-based treatment?
Svar
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
Spjald 657
Spurning
Therapeutic alliance?
Svar
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
Spjald 658
Spurning
Cultural humility in therapy?
Svar
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
Spjald 659
Spurning
Deinstitutionalization?
Svar
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
Spjald 660
Spurning
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
Svar
Exposure therapy.
Spjald 661
Spurning
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
Svar
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
Spjald 662
Spurning
Four medication categories in the course?
Svar
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
Spjald 663
Spurning
Depressive cognitive triad?
Svar
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
Spjald 664
Spurning
Applied behavior analysis?
Svar
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
Spjald 665
Spurning
Psychosurgery?
Svar
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
Spjald 666
Spurning
Free association?
Svar
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
Spjald 667
Spurning
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
Svar
Cognitive restructuring.
Spjald 668
Spurning
One advantage of group therapy?
Svar
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
Spjald 669
Spurning
Lobotomy?
Svar
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
Spjald 670
Spurning
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
Svar
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
Spjald 671
Spurning
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
Svar
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
Spjald 672
Spurning
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
Svar
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
Spjald 673
Spurning
Social anxiety disorder?
Svar
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
Spjald 674
Spurning
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
Svar
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
Spjald 675
Spurning
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
Svar
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
Spjald 676
Spurning
Dissociative fugue?
Svar
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
Spjald 677
Spurning
Cluster B personality disorders?
Svar
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
Spjald 678
Spurning
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
Svar
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
Spjald 679
Spurning
Catatonia?
Svar
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
Spjald 680
Spurning
Manic episode?
Svar
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
Spjald 681
Spurning
Dissociative identity disorder?
Svar
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
Spjald 682
Spurning
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
Svar
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
Spjald 683
Spurning
Cluster C personality disorders?
Svar
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
Spjald 684
Spurning
Taijin kyofusho?
Svar
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
Spjald 685
Spurning
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
Svar
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
Spjald 686
Spurning
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
Svar
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
Spjald 687
Spurning
Hypomanic episode?
Svar
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
Spjald 688
Spurning
Generalized anxiety disorder?
Svar
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
Spjald 689
Spurning
Hoarding disorder?
Svar
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
Spjald 690
Spurning
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
Svar
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
Spjald 691
Spurning
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
Svar
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
Spjald 692
Spurning
Persistent depressive disorder?
Svar
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
Spjald 693
Spurning
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
Svar
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
Spjald 694
Spurning
Systematic desensitization?
Svar
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
Spjald 695
Spurning
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
Svar
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
Spjald 696
Spurning
Dialectical behavior therapy?
Svar
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
Spjald 697
Spurning
Integrity in therapy ethics?
Svar
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
Spjald 698
Spurning
Aversion therapy?
Svar
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
Spjald 699
Spurning
Tardive dyskinesia?
Svar
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
Spjald 700
Spurning
ECT versus TMS?
Svar
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
Spjald 701
Spurning
Respect for rights and dignity?
Svar
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
Spjald 702
Spurning
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
Svar
A token economy.
Spjald 703
Spurning
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
Svar
Person-centered therapy.
Spjald 704
Spurning
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
Svar
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
Spjald 705
Spurning
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
Svar
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.
705 spjöld
AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
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