AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
Review all five AP® Psychology units with 705 independently written cards covering concepts, scenarios, research methods, data interpretation, and evidence-based reasoning.
Σχετικά με αυτήν τη δέσμη
Review all five units in the AP® Psychology course framework with 705 independently written English flashcards. The deck covers Biological Bases of Behavior, Cognition, Development and Learning, Social Psychology and Personality, and Mental and Physical Health. It supports all four science practices: Concept Application, Research Methods and Design, Data Interpretation, and Argumentation.
What the cards ask you to retrieve
- Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
- Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
- Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
- Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
- Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.
The order follows Units 1–5, keeps related material within the current or next topic, and introduces prerequisites and chronological steps first. Definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are separated by at least three unrelated cards. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences remain adjacent only when that progression helps learning.
What's deliberately left out
The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or use long essay prompts. It also leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.
Check the official AP Psychology course page for authoritative requirements. Psychological facts and the course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, ordering, and inherited generated cover, to the extent those rights exist.
This is an independent, unofficial study aid. It isn't affiliated with, endorsed by, sponsored by, or official material from College Board or the AP Program. AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this product. No College Board examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or trade dress were copied or adapted.
Κάρτες σε αυτήν τη δέσμη
Κάρτα 1
Ερώτηση
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
Απάντηση
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
Κάρτα 2
Ερώτηση
Central nervous system?
Απάντηση
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
Κάρτα 3
Ερώτηση
Main role of the spinal cord?
Απάντηση
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
Κάρτα 4
Ερώτηση
Scores are
4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?Απάντηση
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
Κάρτα 5
Ερώτηση
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
Απάντηση
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
Κάρτα 6
Ερώτηση
Peripheral nervous system?
Απάντηση
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
Κάρτα 7
Ερώτηση
Reflex arc?
Απάντηση
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
Κάρτα 8
Ερώτηση
Reflex times are
180, 190, 210, 260, 410milliseconds. What is the median?Απάντηση
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
Κάρτα 9
Ερώτηση
Heritability?
Απάντηση
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
Κάρτα 10
Ερώτηση
Autonomic nervous system?
Απάντηση
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
Κάρτα 11
Ερώτηση
Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
Απάντηση
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
Κάρτα 12
Ερώτηση
Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
Απάντηση
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
Κάρτα 13
Ερώτηση
Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
Απάντηση
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
Κάρτα 14
Ερώτηση
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
Απάντηση
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
Κάρτα 15
Ερώτηση
Natural selection?
Απάντηση
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
Κάρτα 16
Ερώτηση
Somatic nervous system?
Απάντηση
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
Κάρτα 17
Ερώτηση
Sensory neurons?
Απάντηση
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
Κάρτα 18
Ερώτηση
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
Απάντηση
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
Κάρτα 19
Ερώτηση
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
Απάντηση
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
Κάρτα 20
Ερώτηση
Sympathetic nervous system?
Απάντηση
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
Κάρτα 21
Ερώτηση
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
Απάντηση
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
Κάρτα 22
Ερώτηση
Motor neurons?
Απάντηση
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
Κάρτα 23
Ερώτηση
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
Απάντηση
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
Κάρτα 24
Ερώτηση
Parasympathetic nervous system?
Απάντηση
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
Κάρτα 25
Ερώτηση
Resting potential?
Απάντηση
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
Κάρτα 26
Ερώτηση
Interneurons?
Απάντηση
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
Κάρτα 27
Ερώτηση
Adrenaline's behavioral role?
Απάντηση
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
Κάρτα 28
Ερώτηση
Frontal lobes?
Απάντηση
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
Κάρτα 29
Ερώτηση
Neural threshold?
Απάντηση
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
Κάρτα 30
Ερώτηση
Corpus callosum?
Απάντηση
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
Κάρτα 31
Ερώτηση
Leptin's role in eating?
Απάντηση
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
Κάρτα 32
Ερώτηση
Temporal lobes?
Απάντηση
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
Κάρτα 33
Ερώτηση
Depolarization during an action potential?
Απάντηση
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
Κάρτα 34
Ερώτηση
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
Απάντηση
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
Κάρτα 35
Ερώτηση
Ghrelin's role in eating?
Απάντηση
It helps stimulate hunger.
Κάρτα 36
Ερώτηση
Drug agonist?
Απάντηση
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
Κάρτα 37
Ερώτηση
Action potential?
Απάντηση
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
Κάρτα 38
Ερώτηση
Reuptake?
Απάντηση
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
Κάρτα 39
Ερώτηση
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
Απάντηση
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
Κάρτα 40
Ερώτηση
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
Απάντηση
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
Κάρτα 41
Ερώτηση
Refractory period?
Απάντηση
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
Κάρτα 42
Ερώτηση
Melatonin's role?
Απάντηση
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
Κάρτα 43
Ερώτηση
Drug antagonist?
Απάντηση
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
Κάρτα 44
Ερώτηση
Stimulants?
Απάντηση
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
Κάρτα 45
Ερώτηση
Drug tolerance?
Απάντηση
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
Κάρτα 46
Ερώτηση
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Απάντηση
Multiple sclerosis.
Κάρτα 47
Ερώτηση
All-or-none principle?
Απάντηση
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
Κάρτα 48
Ερώτηση
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
Απάντηση
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
Κάρτα 49
Ερώτηση
GABA's major psychological function?
Απάντηση
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
Κάρτα 50
Ερώτηση
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
Απάντηση
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
Κάρτα 51
Ερώτηση
Reuptake inhibitor?
Απάντηση
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
Κάρτα 52
Ερώτηση
Depressants?
Απάντηση
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
Κάρτα 53
Ερώτηση
Drug withdrawal?
Απάντηση
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
Κάρτα 54
Ερώτηση
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Απάντηση
Myasthenia gravis.
Κάρτα 55
Ερώτηση
Glial cells?
Απάντηση
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
Κάρτα 56
Ερώτηση
Endorphins?
Απάντηση
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
Κάρτα 57
Ερώτηση
Substance P?
Απάντηση
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
Κάρτα 58
Ερώτηση
Acetylcholine's major functions?
Απάντηση
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
Κάρτα 59
Ερώτηση
Opioids?
Απάντηση
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
Κάρτα 60
Ερώτηση
Hallucinogens?
Απάντηση
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
Κάρτα 61
Ερώτηση
Addiction?
Απάντηση
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
Κάρτα 62
Ερώτηση
Parietal lobes?
Απάντηση
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
Κάρτα 63
Ερώτηση
Consciousness?
Απάντηση
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
Κάρτα 64
Ερώτηση
Circadian rhythm?
Απάντηση
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
Κάρτα 65
Ερώτηση
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
Απάντηση
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
Κάρτα 66
Ερώτηση
Occipital lobes?
Απάντηση
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
Κάρτα 67
Ερώτηση
What does split-brain research reveal?
Απάντηση
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
Κάρτα 68
Ερώτηση
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
Απάντηση
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
Κάρτα 69
Ερώτηση
NREM-1 sleep?
Απάντηση
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
Κάρτα 70
Ερώτηση
Motor cortex?
Απάντηση
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
Κάρτα 71
Ερώτηση
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
Απάντηση
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
Κάρτα 72
Ερώτηση
Brainstem's core function?
Απάντηση
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
Κάρτα 73
Ερώτηση
NREM-2 sleep?
Απάντηση
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
Κάρτα 74
Ερώτηση
Somatosensory cortex?
Απάντηση
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
Κάρτα 75
Ερώτηση
Medulla's main functions?
Απάντηση
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Κάρτα 76
Ερώτηση
Reticular activating system?
Απάντηση
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
Κάρτα 77
Ερώτηση
NREM-3 sleep?
Απάντηση
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
Κάρτα 78
Ερώτηση
Cerebellum's main functions?
Απάντηση
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
Κάρτα 79
Ερώτηση
Thalamus?
Απάντηση
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
Κάρτα 80
Ερώτηση
Hypothalamus?
Απάντηση
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
Κάρτα 81
Ερώτηση
REM sleep?
Απάντηση
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
Κάρτα 82
Ερώτηση
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
Απάντηση
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
Κάρτα 83
Ερώτηση
Amygdala?
Απάντηση
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
Κάρτα 84
Ερώτηση
Hippocampus?
Απάντηση
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
Κάρτα 85
Ερώτηση
How does sleep change across a typical night?
Απάντηση
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
Κάρτα 86
Ερώτηση
Contralateral brain control?
Απάντηση
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
Κάρτα 87
Ερώτηση
What does an EEG measure?
Απάντηση
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
Κάρτα 88
Ερώτηση
Reward-center activity?
Απάντηση
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
Κάρτα 89
Ερώτηση
Neuroplasticity?
Απάντηση
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
Κάρτα 90
Ερώτηση
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
Απάντηση
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
Κάρτα 91
Ερώτηση
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
Απάντηση
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
Κάρτα 92
Ερώτηση
Insomnia?
Απάντηση
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
Κάρτα 93
Ερώτηση
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
Απάντηση
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
Κάρτα 94
Ερώτηση
Absolute threshold?
Απάντηση
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
Κάρτα 95
Ερώτηση
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
Απάντηση
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
Κάρτα 96
Ερώτηση
Narcolepsy?
Απάντηση
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
Κάρτα 97
Ερώτηση
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
Απάντηση
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
Κάρτα 98
Ερώτηση
Difference threshold?
Απάντηση
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
Κάρτα 99
Ερώτηση
Consolidation view of dreams?
Απάντηση
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
Κάρτα 100
Ερώτηση
REM sleep behavior disorder?
Απάντηση
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
Κάρτα 101
Ερώτηση
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
Απάντηση
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
Κάρτα 102
Ερώτηση
Weber's law?
Απάντηση
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
Κάρτα 103
Ερώτηση
Two supported functions of sleep?
Απάντηση
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
Κάρτα 104
Ερώτηση
Sleep apnea?
Απάντηση
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
Κάρτα 105
Ερώτηση
REM rebound?
Απάντηση
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
Κάρτα 106
Ερώτηση
Signal detection theory?
Απάντηση
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
Κάρτα 107
Ερώτηση
Sensory transduction?
Απάντηση
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
Κάρτα 108
Ερώτηση
Vestibular sense?
Απάντηση
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
Κάρτα 109
Ερώτηση
Somnambulism?
Απάντηση
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
Κάρτα 110
Ερώτηση
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
Απάντηση
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
Κάρτα 111
Ερώτηση
What begins visual transduction?
Απάντηση
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
Κάρτα 112
Ερώτηση
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
Απάντηση
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
Κάρτα 113
Ερώτηση
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
Απάντηση
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
Κάρτα 114
Ερώτηση
Accommodation in vision?
Απάντηση
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
Κάρτα 115
Ερώτηση
Cones?
Απάντηση
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
Κάρτα 116
Ερώτηση
What begins auditory transduction?
Απάντηση
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
Κάρτα 117
Ερώτηση
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
Απάντηση
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
Κάρτα 118
Ερώτηση
How is smell unusual among the senses?
Απάντηση
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
Κάρτα 119
Ερώτηση
Kinesthesia?
Απάντηση
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
Κάρτα 120
Ερώτηση
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
Απάντηση
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
Κάρτα 121
Ερώτηση
Nearsightedness?
Απάντηση
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
Κάρτα 122
Ερώτηση
Pheromones?
Απάντηση
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
Κάρτα 123
Ερώτηση
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
Απάντηση
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
Κάρτα 124
Ερώτηση
Volley theory of pitch?
Απάντηση
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
Κάρτα 125
Ερώτηση
Farsightedness?
Απάντηση
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
Κάρτα 126
Ερώτηση
Six taste qualities named in the course?
Απάντηση
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
Κάρτα 127
Ερώτηση
Phantom-limb sensation?
Απάντηση
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
Κάρτα 128
Ερώτηση
Sensory interaction?
Απάντηση
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
Κάρτα 129
Ερώτηση
What causes most color-vision deficiency?
Απάντηση
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
Κάρτα 130
Ερώτηση
Prosopagnosia?
Απάντηση
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
Κάρτα 131
Ερώτηση
Rods?
Απάντηση
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
Κάρτα 132
Ερώτηση
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
Απάντηση
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
Κάρτα 133
Ερώτηση
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
Απάντηση
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
Κάρτα 134
Ερώτηση
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
Απάντηση
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
Κάρτα 135
Ερώτηση
What do the semicircular canals detect?
Απάντηση
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
Κάρτα 136
Ερώτηση
Synesthesia?
Απάντηση
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
Κάρτα 137
Ερώτηση
Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
Απάντηση
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
Κάρτα 138
Ερώτηση
Blindsight?
Απάντηση
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
Κάρτα 139
Ερώτηση
Sensory adaptation?
Απάντηση
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
Κάρτα 140
Ερώτηση
Gate-control view of pain?
Απάντηση
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
Κάρτα 141
Ερώτηση
Bottom-up processing?
Απάντηση
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
Κάρτα 142
Ερώτηση
Concept?
Απάντηση
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Κάρτα 143
Ερώτηση
Fixation in problem solving?
Απάντηση
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
Κάρτα 144
Ερώτηση
Algorithm?
Απάντηση
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
Κάρτα 145
Ερώτηση
Top-down processing?
Απάντηση
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
Κάρτα 146
Ερώτηση
Confirmation bias?
Απάντηση
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
Κάρτα 147
Ερώτηση
Retinal disparity?
Απάντηση
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
Κάρτα 148
Ερώτηση
Heuristic?
Απάντηση
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
Κάρτα 149
Ερώτηση
Selective attention?
Απάντηση
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
Κάρτα 150
Ερώτηση
Figure–ground organization?
Απάντηση
Separating the object of attention from its background.
Κάρτα 151
Ερώτηση
Convergence as a depth cue?
Απάντηση
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
Κάρτα 152
Ερώτηση
Representativeness heuristic?
Απάντηση
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
Κάρτα 153
Ερώτηση
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
Απάντηση
Inattentional blindness.
Κάρτα 154
Ερώτηση
Gestalt proximity principle?
Απάντηση
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
Κάρτα 155
Ερώτηση
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
Απάντηση
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
Κάρτα 156
Ερώτηση
Cocktail-party effect?
Απάντηση
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
Κάρτα 157
Ερώτηση
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
Απάντηση
Change blindness.
Κάρτα 158
Ερώτηση
Gestalt similarity principle?
Απάντηση
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
Κάρτα 159
Ερώτηση
Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
Απάντηση
Linear perspective.
Κάρτα 160
Ερώτηση
Perceptual constancy?
Απάντηση
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
Κάρτα 161
Ερώτηση
Perceptual set?
Απάντηση
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
Κάρτα 162
Ερώτηση
Gestalt closure principle?
Απάντηση
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
Κάρτα 163
Ερώτηση
One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
Απάντηση
The blocking object, using interposition.
Κάρτα 164
Ερώτηση
Apparent motion?
Απάντηση
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
Κάρτα 165
Ερώτηση
Availability heuristic?
Απάντηση
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
Κάρτα 166
Ερώτηση
Divergent thinking?
Απάντηση
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
Κάρτα 167
Ερώτηση
A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
Απάντηση
Relative clarity.
Κάρτα 168
Ερώτηση
Prototype?
Απάντηση
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
Κάρτα 169
Ερώτηση
Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
Απάντηση
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
Κάρτα 170
Ερώτηση
Convergent thinking?
Απάντηση
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
Κάρτα 171
Ερώτηση
A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
Απάντηση
Texture gradient.
Κάρτα 172
Ερώτηση
Belief perseverance?
Απάντηση
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
Κάρτα 173
Ερώτηση
Explicit memory?
Απάντηση
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
Κάρτα 174
Ερώτηση
Three stores in the multi-store model?
Απάντηση
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Κάρτα 175
Ερώτηση
Seeing an object only in its usual role?
Απάντηση
Functional fixedness.
Κάρτα 176
Ερώτηση
Mental set?
Απάντηση
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
Κάρτα 177
Ερώτηση
Episodic memory?
Απάντηση
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
Κάρτα 178
Ερώτηση
Working memory?
Απάντηση
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
Κάρτα 179
Ερώτηση
Insight?
Απάντηση
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Κάρτα 180
Ερώτηση
Framing effect?
Απάντηση
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
Κάρτα 181
Ερώτηση
Implicit memory?
Απάντηση
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
Κάρτα 182
Ερώτηση
Overconfidence bias?
Απάντηση
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
Κάρτα 183
Ερώτηση
Anchoring bias?
Απάντηση
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
Κάρτα 184
Ερώτηση
Schema in thinking?
Απάντηση
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
Κάρτα 185
Ερώτηση
Procedural memory?
Απάντηση
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
Κάρτα 186
Ερώτηση
Gambler's fallacy?
Απάντηση
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
Κάρτα 187
Ερώτηση
Sunk-cost fallacy?
Απάντηση
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
Κάρτα 188
Ερώτηση
Executive functions?
Απάντηση
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
Κάρτα 189
Ερώτηση
How can priming affect judgment?
Απάντηση
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
Κάρτα 190
Ερώτηση
Central executive in working memory?
Απάντηση
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
Κάρτα 191
Ερώτηση
Serial-position effect?
Απάντηση
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
Κάρτα 192
Ερώτηση
Semantic memory?
Απάντηση
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
Κάρτα 193
Ερώτηση
Levels-of-processing principle?
Απάντηση
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
Κάρτα 194
Ερώτηση
Automatic processing?
Απάντηση
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
Κάρτα 195
Ερώτηση
Maintenance rehearsal?
Απάντηση
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
Κάρτα 196
Ερώτηση
Prospective memory?
Απάντηση
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
Κάρτα 197
Ερώτηση
Primacy effect?
Απάντηση
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
Κάρτα 198
Ερώτηση
Long-term memory?
Απάντηση
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
Κάρτα 199
Ερώτηση
Highly superior autobiographical memory?
Απάντηση
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
Κάρτα 200
Ερώτηση
Effortful processing?
Απάντηση
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
Κάρτα 201
Ερώτηση
Elaborative rehearsal?
Απάντηση
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
Κάρτα 202
Ερώτηση
Memory consolidation?
Απάντηση
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
Κάρτα 203
Ερώτηση
Recency effect?
Απάντηση
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
Κάρτα 204
Ερώτηση
Spacing effect?
Απάντηση
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
Κάρτα 205
Ερώτηση
Testing effect?
Απάντηση
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
Κάρτα 206
Ερώτηση
Chunking?
Απάντηση
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
Κάρτα 207
Ερώτηση
Mnemonic?
Απάντηση
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
Κάρτα 208
Ερώτηση
Why organize material into a hierarchy?
Απάντηση
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
Κάρτα 209
Ερώτηση
How can a schema help encoding?
Απάντηση
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
Κάρτα 210
Ερώτηση
Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
Απάντηση
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
Κάρτα 211
Ερώτηση
Iconic memory?
Απάντηση
A very brief visual sensory memory.
Κάρτα 212
Ερώτηση
Recall?
Απάντηση
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
Κάρτα 213
Ερώτηση
Retrieval cue?
Απάντηση
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
Κάρτα 214
Ερώτηση
Encoding-specificity principle?
Απάντηση
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
Κάρτα 215
Ερώτηση
Context-dependent memory?
Απάντηση
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
Κάρτα 216
Ερώτηση
Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
Απάντηση
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
Κάρτα 217
Ερώτηση
Echoic memory?
Απάντηση
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
Κάρτα 218
Ερώτηση
Anterograde amnesia?
Απάντηση
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
Κάρτα 219
Ερώτηση
Phonological loop?
Απάντηση
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
Κάρτα 220
Ερώτηση
Cerebellum's memory role?
Απάντηση
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
Κάρτα 221
Ερώτηση
Why is short-term memory described as limited?
Απάντηση
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
Κάρτα 222
Ερώτηση
Retrograde amnesia?
Απάντηση
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
Κάρτα 223
Ερώτηση
Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
Απάντηση
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
Κάρτα 224
Ερώτηση
How can the amygdala affect memory?
Απάντηση
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
Κάρτα 225
Ερώτηση
Visuospatial sketchpad?
Απάντηση
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
Κάρτα 226
Ερώτηση
Long-term potentiation?
Απάντηση
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
Κάρτα 227
Ερώτηση
Infantile amnesia?
Απάντηση
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
Κάρτα 228
Ερώτηση
Alzheimer's disease?
Απάντηση
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
Κάρτα 229
Ερώτηση
Scores are
2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?Απάντηση
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because
9 - 2 = 7.Κάρτα 230
Ερώτηση
Recognition?
Απάντηση
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
Κάρτα 231
Ερώτηση
Why is memory called reconstructive?
Απάντηση
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
Κάρτα 232
Ερώτηση
Storage decay?
Απάντηση
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
Κάρτα 233
Ερώτηση
State-dependent memory?
Απάντηση
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
Κάρτα 234
Ερώτηση
Relearning?
Απάντηση
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
Κάρτα 235
Ερώτηση
Misinformation effect?
Απάντηση
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
Κάρτα 236
Ερώτηση
A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
Απάντηση
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
Κάρτα 237
Ερώτηση
Mood-congruent memory?
Απάντηση
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
Κάρτα 238
Ερώτηση
Priming?
Απάντηση
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
Κάρτα 239
Ερώτηση
Tip-of-the-tongue state?
Απάντηση
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
Κάρτα 240
Ερώτηση
Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
Απάντηση
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
Κάρτα 241
Ερώτηση
Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
Απάντηση
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
Κάρτα 242
Ερώτηση
Metacognition?
Απάντηση
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
Κάρτα 243
Ερώτηση
Source amnesia?
Απάντηση
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
Κάρτα 244
Ερώτηση
Test standardization?
Απάντηση
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
Κάρτα 245
Ερώτηση
Reliability?
Απάντηση
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
Κάρτα 246
Ερώτηση
Stereotype threat?
Απάντηση
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
Κάρτα 247
Ερώτηση
General intelligence, or g?
Απάντηση
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
Κάρτα 248
Ερώτηση
Encoding failure?
Απάντηση
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
Κάρτα 249
Ερώτηση
Validity?
Απάντηση
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
Κάρτα 250
Ερώτηση
Proactive interference?
Απάντηση
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
Κάρτα 251
Ερώτηση
Imagination inflation?
Απάντηση
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
Κάρτα 252
Ερώτηση
A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
Απάντηση
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
Κάρτα 253
Ερώτηση
Retrieval failure?
Απάντηση
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
Κάρτα 254
Ερώτηση
Retroactive interference?
Απάντηση
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
Κάρτα 255
Ερώτηση
A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
Απάντηση
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
Κάρτα 256
Ερώτηση
Repression in psychodynamic theory?
Απάντηση
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
Κάρτα 257
Ερώτηση
Flashbulb memory?
Απάντηση
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
Κάρτα 258
Ερώτηση
A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
Απάντηση
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
Κάρτα 259
Ερώτηση
A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
Απάντηση
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
Κάρτα 260
Ερώτηση
Stereotype lift?
Απάντηση
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
Κάρτα 261
Ερώτηση
Achievement test?
Απάντηση
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
Κάρτα 262
Ερώτηση
Construct validity?
Απάντηση
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
Κάρτα 263
Ερώτηση
Test–retest reliability?
Απάντηση
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
Κάρτα 264
Ερώτηση
Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
Απάντηση
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
Κάρτα 265
Ερώτηση
Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
Απάντηση
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
Κάρτα 266
Ερώτηση
Aptitude test?
Απάντηση
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
Κάρτα 267
Ερώτηση
Traditional IQ formula?
Απάντηση
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
Κάρτα 268
Ερώτηση
Predictive validity?
Απάντηση
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
Κάρτα 269
Ερώτηση
What does a normal score distribution look like?
Απάντηση
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
Κάρτα 270
Ερώτηση
Split-half reliability?
Απάντηση
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
Κάρτα 271
Ερώτηση
Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
Απάντηση
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
Κάρτα 272
Ερώτηση
Flynn effect?
Απάντηση
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
Κάρτα 273
Ερώτηση
A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
Απάντηση
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
Κάρτα 274
Ερώτηση
Continuous versus stage development?
Απάντηση
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
Κάρτα 275
Ερώτηση
How can prenatal environment affect later development?
Απάντηση
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
Κάρτα 276
Ερώτηση
Teratogen?
Απάντηση
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
Κάρτα 277
Ερώτηση
Maturation?
Απάντηση
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
Κάρτα 278
Ερώτηση
Stability–change question in development?
Απάντηση
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
Κάρτα 279
Ερώτηση
A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
Απάντηση
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
Κάρτα 280
Ερώτηση
Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
Απάντηση
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
Κάρτα 281
Ερώτηση
Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
Απάντηση
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
Κάρτα 282
Ερώτηση
Fine versus gross motor skills?
Απάντηση
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
Κάρτα 283
Ερώτηση
Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
Απάντηση
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
Κάρτα 284
Ερώτηση
What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
Απάντηση
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
Κάρτα 285
Ερώτηση
Puberty?
Απάντηση
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
Κάρτα 286
Ερώτηση
Sensitive period?
Απάντηση
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
Κάρτα 287
Ερώτηση
What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
Απάντηση
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
Κάρτα 288
Ερώτηση
Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
Απάντηση
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
Κάρτα 289
Ερώτηση
Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
Απάντηση
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
Κάρτα 290
Ερώτηση
Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
Απάντηση
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
Κάρτα 291
Ερώτηση
Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
Απάντηση
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
Κάρτα 292
Ερώτηση
Menarche?
Απάντηση
The first menstrual period.
Κάρτα 293
Ερώτηση
Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
Απάντηση
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
Κάρτα 294
Ερώτηση
About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
Απάντηση
About 68%.
Κάρτα 295
Ερώτηση
A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
Απάντηση
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
Κάρτα 296
Ερώτηση
Spermarche?
Απάντηση
The first ejaculation.
Κάρτα 297
Ερώτηση
Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
Απάντηση
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
Κάρτα 298
Ερώτηση
Imprinting?
Απάντηση
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
Κάρτα 299
Ερώτηση
Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
Απάντηση
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
Κάρτα 300
Ερώτηση
Menopause?
Απάντηση
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
Κάρτα 301
Ερώτηση
Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
Απάντηση
Naturalistic observation.
Κάρτα 302
Ερώτηση
How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
Απάντηση
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
Κάρτα 303
Ερώτηση
Gender identity?
Απάντηση
A person's internal sense of their gender.
Κάρτα 304
Ερώτηση
Gender role?
Απάντηση
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
Κάρτα 305
Ερώτηση
Sex versus gender?
Απάντηση
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
Κάρτα 306
Ερώτηση
Common sensory change in later adulthood?
Απάντηση
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
Κάρτα 307
Ερώτηση
Sexual orientation?
Απάντηση
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
Κάρτα 308
Ερώτηση
Gender schema?
Απάντηση
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
Κάρτα 309
Ερώτηση
Best broad view of gender development?
Απάντηση
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
Κάρτα 310
Ερώτηση
Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
Απάντηση
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
Κάρτα 311
Ερώτηση
Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
Απάντηση
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
Κάρτα 312
Ερώτηση
Schema in cognitive development?
Απάντηση
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
Κάρτα 313
Ερώτηση
Sensorimotor stage?
Απάντηση
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
Κάρτα 314
Ερώτηση
Preoperational stage?
Απάντηση
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
Κάρτα 315
Ερώτηση
Assimilation?
Απάντηση
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
Κάρτα 316
Ερώτηση
A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
Απάντηση
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
Κάρτα 317
Ερώτηση
Animism in preoperational thought?
Απάντηση
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
Κάρτα 318
Ερώτηση
Concrete operational stage?
Απάντηση
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
Κάρτα 319
Ερώτηση
Accommodation?
Απάντηση
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
Κάρτα 320
Ερώτηση
Reversibility in cognitive development?
Απάντηση
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
Κάρτα 321
Ερώτηση
How can social learning shape gender expression?
Απάντηση
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
Κάρτα 322
Ερώτηση
A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
Απάντηση
Assimilation.
Κάρτα 323
Ερώτηση
Language?
Απάντηση
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
Κάρτα 324
Ερώτηση
Cooing stage?
Απάντηση
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
Κάρτα 325
Ερώτηση
Babbling stage?
Απάντηση
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
Κάρτα 326
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One-word stage?
Απάντηση
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
Κάρτα 327
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Grammar?
Απάντηση
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
Κάρτα 328
Ερώτηση
A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
Απάντηση
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
Κάρτα 329
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Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
Απάντηση
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
Κάρτα 330
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A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
Απάντηση
Accommodation.
Κάρτα 331
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A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
Απάντηση
Scaffolding.
Κάρτα 332
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A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
Απάντηση
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
Κάρτα 333
Ερώτηση
Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
Απάντηση
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
Κάρτα 334
Ερώτηση
An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
Απάντηση
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
Κάρτα 335
Ερώτηση
Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
Απάντηση
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
Κάρτα 336
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Formal operational stage?
Απάντηση
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
Κάρτα 337
Ερώτηση
Dementia?
Απάντηση
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
Κάρτα 338
Ερώτηση
Phoneme?
Απάντηση
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
Κάρτα 339
Ερώτηση
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
Απάντηση
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
Κάρτα 340
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Temperament?
Απάντηση
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
Κάρτα 341
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Attachment?
Απάντηση
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
Κάρτα 342
Ερώτηση
Erikson's infancy conflict?
Απάντηση
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
Κάρτα 343
Ερώτηση
Microsystem?
Απάντηση
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
Κάρτα 344
Ερώτηση
Erikson's toddler conflict?
Απάντηση
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
Κάρτα 345
Ερώτηση
Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
Απάντηση
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
Κάρτα 346
Ερώτηση
Erikson's school-age conflict?
Απάντηση
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
Κάρτα 347
Ερώτηση
Mesosystem?
Απάντηση
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
Κάρτα 348
Ερώτηση
Erikson's adolescent conflict?
Απάντηση
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
Κάρτα 349
Ερώτηση
Erikson's young-adult conflict?
Απάντηση
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
Κάρτα 350
Ερώτηση
Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
Απάντηση
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
Κάρτα 351
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Exosystem?
Απάντηση
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
Κάρτα 352
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Morpheme?
Απάντηση
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
Κάρτα 353
Ερώτηση
Telegraphic speech?
Απάντηση
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
705 κάρτες
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Κάρτα 354
Ερώτηση
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
Απάντηση
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
Κάρτα 355
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Macrosystem?
Απάντηση
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
Κάρτα 356
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Semantics?
Απάντηση
The meanings of words and sentences.
Κάρτα 357
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A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
Απάντηση
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
Κάρτα 358
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What does a sensitive period for language imply?
Απάντηση
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
Κάρτα 359
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Does language completely determine thought?
Απάντηση
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
Κάρτα 360
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Syntax?
Απάντηση
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
Κάρτα 361
Ερώτηση
A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
Απάντηση
Secure attachment.
Κάρτα 362
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How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
Απάντηση
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
Κάρτα 363
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Authoritative parenting?
Απάντηση
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
Κάρτα 364
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Identity achievement?
Απάντηση
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
Κάρτα 365
Ερώτηση
Avoidant attachment pattern?
Απάντηση
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
Κάρτα 366
Ερώτηση
Classical conditioning?
Απάντηση
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
Κάρτα 367
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Unconditioned stimulus?
Απάντηση
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
Κάρτα 368
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Unconditioned response?
Απάντηση
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
Κάρτα 369
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Conditioned stimulus?
Απάντηση
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
Κάρτα 370
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Conditioned response?
Απάντηση
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Κάρτα 371
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Acquisition in classical conditioning?
Απάντηση
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Κάρτα 372
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During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
Απάντηση
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
Κάρτα 373
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Authoritarian parenting?
Απάντηση
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
Κάρτα 374
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Identity diffusion?
Απάντηση
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
Κάρτα 375
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Extinction in classical conditioning?
Απάντηση
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
Κάρτα 376
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Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
Απάντηση
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
Κάρτα 377
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Permissive parenting?
Απάντηση
High warmth with few demands or limits.
Κάρτα 378
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Parallel play?
Απάντηση
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
Κάρτα 379
Ερώτηση
Imaginary audience?
Απάντηση
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
Κάρτα 380
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Identity foreclosure?
Απάντηση
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
Κάρτα 381
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Disorganized attachment pattern?
Απάντηση
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
Κάρτα 382
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Neglectful parenting?
Απάντηση
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
Κάρτα 383
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Chronosystem?
Απάντηση
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
Κάρτα 384
Ερώτηση
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
Απάντηση
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
Κάρτα 385
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Personal fable?
Απάντηση
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
Κάρτα 386
Ερώτηση
Identity moratorium?
Απάντηση
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
Κάρτα 387
Ερώτηση
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
Απάντηση
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
Κάρτα 388
Ερώτηση
Separation anxiety in infancy?
Απάντηση
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
Κάρτα 389
Ερώτηση
What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
Απάντηση
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
Κάρτα 390
Ερώτηση
Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
Απάντηση
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
Κάρτα 391
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Emerging adulthood?
Απάντηση
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
Κάρτα 392
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Social clock?
Απάντηση
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
Κάρτα 393
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Erikson's later-adult conflict?
Απάντηση
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
Κάρτα 394
Ερώτηση
Possible selves?
Απάντηση
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
Κάρτα 395
Ερώτηση
Stimulus generalization?
Απάντηση
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
Κάρτα 396
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Operant conditioning?
Απάντηση
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
Κάρτα 397
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Law of effect?
Απάντηση
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
Κάρτα 398
Ερώτηση
Spontaneous recovery?
Απάντηση
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
Κάρτα 399
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Stimulus discrimination?
Απάντηση
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
Κάρτα 400
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Reinforcement?
Απάντηση
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
Κάρτα 401
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Higher-order conditioning?
Απάντηση
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
Κάρτα 402
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Counterconditioning?
Απάντηση
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
Κάρτα 403
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Habituation?
Απάντηση
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
Κάρτα 404
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Punishment?
Απάντηση
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
Κάρτα 405
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Partial reinforcement?
Απάντηση
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
Κάρτα 406
Ερώτηση
Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
Απάντηση
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
Κάρτα 407
Ερώτηση
Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
Απάντηση
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
Κάρτα 408
Ερώτηση
Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
Απάντηση
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
Κάρτα 409
Ερώτηση
Fixed-ratio schedule?
Απάντηση
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
Κάρτα 410
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Observational learning?
Απάντηση
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
Κάρτα 411
Ερώτηση
A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
Απάντηση
Positive reinforcement.
Κάρτα 412
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Primary reinforcer?
Απάντηση
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
Κάρτα 413
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Variable-ratio schedule?
Απάντηση
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
Κάρτα 414
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Modeling?
Απάντηση
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
Κάρτα 415
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Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
Απάντηση
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
Κάρτα 416
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Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
Απάντηση
Negative reinforcement.
Κάρτα 417
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Conditioned reinforcer?
Απάντηση
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
Κάρτα 418
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A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
Απάντηση
Vicarious reinforcement.
Κάρτα 419
Ερώτηση
Fixed-interval schedule?
Απάντηση
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
Κάρτα 420
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Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
Απάντηση
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
Κάρτα 421
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A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
Απάντηση
Positive punishment.
Κάρτα 422
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Shaping?
Απάντηση
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
Κάρτα 423
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Extinction in operant conditioning?
Απάντηση
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
Κάρτα 424
Ερώτηση
Variable-interval schedule?
Απάντηση
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
Κάρτα 425
Ερώτηση
A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
Απάντηση
Negative punishment.
Κάρτα 426
Ερώτηση
Learned helplessness?
Απάντηση
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
Κάρτα 427
Ερώτηση
Continuous reinforcement?
Απάντηση
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
Κάρτα 428
Ερώτηση
A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
Απάντηση
A fixed-interval schedule.
Κάρτα 429
Ερώτηση
Discriminative stimulus?
Απάντηση
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
Κάρτα 430
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Operant generalization versus discrimination?
Απάντηση
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
Κάρτα 431
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Instinctive drift?
Απάντηση
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
Κάρτα 432
Ερώτηση
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
Απάντηση
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
Κάρτα 433
Ερώτηση
How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
Απάντηση
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
Κάρτα 434
Ερώτηση
How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
Απάντηση
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
Κάρτα 435
Ερώτηση
Vicarious conditioning?
Απάντηση
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
Κάρτα 436
Ερώτηση
A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
Απάντηση
A variable-interval schedule.
Κάρτα 437
Ερώτηση
Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
Απάντηση
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
Κάρτα 438
Ερώτηση
Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
Απάντηση
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
Κάρτα 439
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Latent learning?
Απάντηση
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
Κάρτα 440
Ερώτηση
Cognitive map?
Απάντηση
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
Κάρτα 441
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Insight learning?
Απάντηση
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
Κάρτα 442
Ερώτηση
Biological preparedness?
Απάντηση
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
Κάρτα 443
Ερώτηση
What can mirror-neuron activity show?
Απάντηση
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
Κάρτα 444
Ερώτηση
Attribution?
Απάντηση
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
Κάρτα 445
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Attitude?
Απάντηση
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
Κάρτα 446
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Upward social comparison?
Απάντηση
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
Κάρτα 447
Ερώτηση
Optimistic explanatory style?
Απάντηση
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
Κάρτα 448
Ερώτηση
Situational attribution?
Απάντηση
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
Κάρτα 449
Ερώτηση
A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
Απάντηση
Cognitive dissonance.
Κάρτα 450
Ερώτηση
Downward social comparison?
Απάντηση
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
Κάρτα 451
Ερώτηση
Internal locus of control?
Απάντηση
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
Κάρτα 452
Ερώτηση
Dispositional attribution?
Απάντηση
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
Κάρτα 453
Ερώτηση
Pessimistic explanatory style?
Απάντηση
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
Κάρτα 454
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Relative deprivation?
Απάντηση
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
Κάρτα 455
Ερώτηση
External locus of control?
Απάντηση
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
Κάρτα 456
Ερώτηση
Fundamental attribution error?
Απάντηση
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
Κάρτα 457
Ερώτηση
Halo effect?
Απάντηση
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
Κάρτα 458
Ερώτηση
Self-fulfilling prophecy?
Απάντηση
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
Κάρτα 459
Ερώτηση
Mere-exposure effect?
Απάντηση
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
Κάρτα 460
Ερώτηση
A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
Απάντηση
The actor–observer difference.
Κάρτα 461
Ερώτηση
A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
Απάντηση
The central route.
Κάρτα 462
Ερώτηση
Effort justification?
Απάντηση
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
Κάρτα 463
Ερώτηση
Stereotype?
Απάντηση
A generalized belief about members of a group.
Κάρτα 464
Ερώτηση
A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
Απάντηση
Self-serving bias.
Κάρτα 465
Ερώτηση
A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
Απάντηση
The peripheral route.
Κάρτα 466
Ερώτηση
Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
Απάντηση
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
Κάρτα 467
Ερώτηση
Prejudice?
Απάντηση
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
Κάρτα 468
Ερώτηση
The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:
Workload Errors Low 2 High 8 Which attribution is better supported?
Απάντηση
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
Κάρτα 469
Ερώτηση
Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
Απάντηση
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
Κάρτα 470
Ερώτηση
Conformity?
Απάντηση
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
Κάρτα 471
Ερώτηση
Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
Απάντηση
The bystander effect.
Κάρτα 472
Ερώτηση
Diffusion of responsibility?
Απάντηση
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
Κάρτα 473
Ερώτηση
How can taking on a role affect attitude?
Απάντηση
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
Κάρτα 474
Ερώτηση
In-group bias?
Απάντηση
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
Κάρτα 475
Ερώτηση
After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
Απάντηση
The foot-in-the-door technique.
Κάρτα 476
Ερώτηση
A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
Απάντηση
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
Κάρτα 477
Ερώτηση
When do attitudes best predict behavior?
Απάντηση
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
Κάρτα 478
Ερώτηση
Discrimination?
Απάντηση
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
Κάρτα 479
Ερώτηση
Out-group homogeneity effect?
Απάντηση
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
Κάρτα 480
Ερώτηση
After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
Απάντηση
The door-in-the-face technique.
Κάρτα 481
Ερώτηση
A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
Απάντηση
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
Κάρτα 482
Ερώτηση
Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
Απάντηση
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
Κάρτα 483
Ερώτηση
Just-world belief?
Απάντηση
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
Κάρτα 484
Ερώτηση
Implicit attitude?
Απάντηση
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
Κάρτα 485
Ερώτηση
Ethnocentrism?
Απάντηση
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
Κάρτα 486
Ερώτηση
How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
Απάντηση
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
Κάρτα 487
Ερώτηση
Normative social influence?
Απάντηση
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
Κάρτα 488
Ερώτηση
Psychodynamic view of personality?
Απάντηση
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
Κάρτα 489
Ερώτηση
Norm of reciprocity?
Απάντηση
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
Κάρτα 490
Ερώτηση
Individualism?
Απάντηση
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
Κάρτα 491
Ερώτηση
Informational social influence?
Απάντηση
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
Κάρτα 492
Ερώτηση
Id?
Απάντηση
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
Κάρτα 493
Ερώτηση
Altruism?
Απάντηση
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
Κάρτα 494
Ερώτηση
Social norm?
Απάντηση
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
Κάρτα 495
Ερώτηση
What tends to increase conformity?
Απάντηση
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
Κάρτα 496
Ερώτηση
Ego?
Απάντηση
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
Κάρτα 497
Ερώτηση
A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
Απάντηση
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
Κάρτα 498
Ερώτηση
Collectivism?
Απάντηση
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
Κάρτα 499
Ερώτηση
Obedience?
Απάντηση
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
Κάρτα 500
Ερώτηση
Superego?
Απάντηση
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
Κάρτα 501
Ερώτηση
A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
Απάντηση
Denial.
Κάρτα 502
Ερώτηση
Social-responsibility norm?
Απάντηση
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
Κάρτα 503
Ερώτηση
How does proximity affect attraction?
Απάντηση
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
Κάρτα 504
Ερώτηση
What tends to increase obedience?
Απάντηση
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
Κάρτα 505
Ερώτηση
After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
Απάντηση
Displacement.
Κάρτα 506
Ερώτηση
Social loafing?
Απάντηση
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
Κάρτα 507
Ερώτηση
Multiculturalism?
Απάντηση
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
Κάρτα 508
Ερώτηση
How does similarity affect attraction?
Απάντηση
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
Κάρτα 509
Ερώτηση
A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
Απάντηση
Projection.
Κάρτα 510
Ερώτηση
Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
Απάντηση
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
Κάρτα 511
Ερώτηση
Deindividuation?
Απάντηση
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
Κάρτα 512
Ερώτηση
Group polarization?
Απάντηση
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
Κάρτα 513
Ερώτηση
After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
Απάντηση
Rationalization.
Κάρτα 514
Ερώτηση
A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
Απάντηση
Groupthink.
Κάρτα 515
Ερώτηση
Pluralistic ignorance?
Απάντηση
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
Κάρτα 516
Ερώτηση
Social trap?
Απάντηση
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
Κάρτα 517
Ερώτηση
Reaction formation?
Απάντηση
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
Κάρτα 518
Ερώτηση
Superordinate goal?
Απάντηση
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
Κάρτα 519
Ερώτηση
False-consensus effect?
Απάντηση
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
Κάρτα 520
Ερώτηση
Industrial-organizational psychology?
Απάντηση
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
Κάρτα 521
Ερώτηση
Repression?
Απάντηση
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
Κάρτα 522
Ερώτηση
Burnout?
Απάντηση
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
Κάρτα 523
Ερώτηση
Unconditional positive regard?
Απάντηση
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
Κάρτα 524
Ερώτηση
Trait?
Απάντηση
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
Κάρτα 525
Ερώτηση
Regression as a defense mechanism?
Απάντηση
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
Κάρτα 526
Ερώτηση
Reciprocal determinism?
Απάντηση
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
Κάρτα 527
Ερώτηση
Self-efficacy?
Απάντηση
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
Κάρτα 528
Ερώτηση
Self-concept in humanistic theory?
Απάντηση
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
Κάρτα 529
Ερώτηση
Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
Απάντηση
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
Κάρτα 530
Ερώτηση
A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Απάντηση
Openness.
Κάρτα 531
Ερώτηση
Personality inventory?
Απάντηση
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
Κάρτα 532
Ερώτηση
Self-actualizing tendency?
Απάντηση
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
Κάρτα 533
Ερώτηση
Self-esteem?
Απάντηση
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
Κάρτα 534
Ερώτηση
Instinct in motivation research?
Απάντηση
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
Κάρτα 535
Ερώτηση
A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Απάντηση
Conscientiousness.
Κάρτα 536
Ερώτηση
Projective test?
Απάντηση
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
Κάρτα 537
Ερώτηση
How does factor analysis help trait research?
Απάντηση
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
Κάρτα 538
Ερώτηση
Drive-reduction theory?
Απάντηση
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
Κάρτα 539
Ερώτηση
A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Απάντηση
Extraversion.
Κάρτα 540
Ερώτηση
Person–situation debate?
Απάντηση
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
Κάρτα 541
Ερώτηση
A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
Απάντηση
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
Κάρτα 542
Ερώτηση
Homeostasis?
Απάντηση
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
Κάρτα 543
Ερώτηση
Incentive theory?
Απάντηση
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
Κάρτα 544
Ερώτηση
Big Five agreeableness?
Απάντηση
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
Κάρτα 545
Ερώτηση
A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
Απάντηση
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
Κάρτα 546
Ερώτηση
A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
Απάντηση
An approach–approach conflict.
Κάρτα 547
Ερώτηση
Arousal theory of motivation?
Απάντηση
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
Κάρτα 548
Ερώτηση
Big Five emotional stability?
Απάντηση
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
Κάρτα 549
Ερώτηση
What regulates hunger?
Απάντηση
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
Κάρτα 550
Ερώτηση
Three broad components of emotion?
Απάντηση
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
Κάρτα 551
Ερώτηση
Self-determination theory?
Απάντηση
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
Κάρτα 552
Ερώτηση
Emotion regulation?
Απάντηση
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
Κάρτα 553
Ερώτηση
Sensation-seeking?
Απάντηση
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
Κάρτα 554
Ερώτηση
Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
Απάντηση
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
Κάρτα 555
Ερώτηση
Intrinsic motivation?
Απάντηση
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
Κάρτα 556
Ερώτηση
Display rules?
Απάντηση
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
Κάρτα 557
Ερώτηση
Arousal and performance relationship?
Απάντηση
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
Κάρτα 558
Ερώτηση
A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
Απάντηση
An approach–avoidance conflict.
Κάρτα 559
Ερώτηση
Extrinsic motivation?
Απάντηση
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
Κάρτα 560
Ερώτηση
Achievement motivation?
Απάντηση
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
Κάρτα 561
Ερώτηση
Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
Απάντηση
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
Κάρτα 562
Ερώτηση
A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
Απάντηση
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
Κάρτα 563
Ερώτηση
Overjustification effect?
Απάντηση
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
Κάρτα 564
Ερώτηση
Belongingness motivation?
Απάντηση
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
Κάρτα 565
Ερώτηση
Study time changed after students chose their own topic:
Condition Mean minutes Assigned topic 34 Chosen topic 47 What is the observed mean difference?
Απάντηση
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
Κάρτα 566
Ερώτηση
Facial-feedback effect?
Απάντηση
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
Κάρτα 567
Ερώτηση
Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
Απάντηση
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
Κάρτα 568
Ερώτηση
A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
Απάντηση
Cognitive reappraisal.
Κάρτα 569
Ερώτηση
Broaden-and-build view?
Απάντηση
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
Κάρτα 570
Ερώτηση
Which emotions often appear across cultures?
Απάντηση
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
Κάρτα 571
Ερώτηση
How can the same arousal become different emotions?
Απάντηση
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
Κάρτα 572
Ερώτηση
Expressive suppression?
Απάντηση
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
Κάρτα 573
Ερώτηση
How does acute stress affect the body?
Απάντηση
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
Κάρτα 574
Ερώτηση
Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
Απάντηση
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
Κάρτα 575
Ερώτηση
In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
Απάντηση
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
Κάρτα 576
Ερώτηση
A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
Απάντηση
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
Κάρτα 577
Ερώτηση
Health psychology?
Απάντηση
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
Κάρτα 578
Ερώτηση
Positive psychology?
Απάντηση
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
Κάρτα 579
Ερώτηση
Stress?
Απάντηση
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
Κάρτα 580
Ερώτηση
A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
Απάντηση
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
Κάρτα 581
Ερώτηση
Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
Απάντηση
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
Κάρτα 582
Ερώτηση
Resilience?
Απάντηση
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
Κάρτα 583
Ερώτηση
Stressor?
Απάντηση
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
Κάρτα 584
Ερώτηση
General adaptation syndrome?
Απάντηση
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
Κάρτα 585
Ερώτηση
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
Απάντηση
Problem-focused coping.
Κάρτα 586
Ερώτηση
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
Απάντηση
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
Κάρτα 587
Ερώτηση
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
Απάντηση
Primary appraisal.
Κάρτα 588
Ερώτηση
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
Απάντηση
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
Κάρτα 589
Ερώτηση
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
Απάντηση
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
Κάρτα 590
Ερώτηση
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
Απάντηση
Emotion-focused coping.
Κάρτα 591
Ερώτηση
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
Απάντηση
Secondary appraisal.
Κάρτα 592
Ερώτηση
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
Απάντηση
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
Κάρτα 593
Ερώτηση
Adverse childhood experiences?
Απάντηση
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
Κάρτα 594
Ερώτηση
How can social support protect health?
Απάντηση
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
Κάρτα 595
Ερώτηση
Eustress versus distress?
Απάντηση
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
Κάρτα 596
Ερώτηση
Tend-and-befriend response?
Απάντηση
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
Κάρτα 597
Ερώτηση
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
Απάντηση
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
Κάρτα 598
Ερώτηση
Biofeedback?
Απάντηση
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
Κάρτα 599
Ερώτηση
How does perceived control affect stress?
Απάντηση
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
Κάρτα 600
Ερώτηση
Psychoneuroimmunology?
Απάντηση
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
Κάρτα 601
Ερώτηση
Subjective well-being?
Απάντηση
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
Κάρτα 602
Ερώτηση
Psychological disorder?
Απάντηση
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
Κάρτα 603
Ερώτηση
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
Απάντηση
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
Κάρτα 604
Ερώτηση
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
Απάντηση
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
Κάρτα 605
Ερώτηση
Signature strengths?
Απάντηση
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
Κάρτα 606
Ερώτηση
Biopsychosocial model?
Απάντηση
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
Κάρτα 607
Ερώτηση
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
Απάντηση
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
Κάρτα 608
Ερώτηση
Posttraumatic growth?
Απάντηση
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
Κάρτα 609
Ερώτηση
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
Απάντηση
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
Κάρτα 610
Ερώτηση
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
Απάντηση
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
Κάρτα 611
Ερώτηση
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
Απάντηση
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
Κάρτα 612
Ερώτηση
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
Απάντηση
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
Κάρτα 613
Ερώτηση
Biological explanation of disorder?
Απάντηση
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
Κάρτα 614
Ερώτηση
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
Απάντηση
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
Κάρτα 615
Ερώτηση
Purpose of the DSM?
Απάντηση
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
Κάρτα 616
Ερώτηση
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
Απάντηση
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
Κάρτα 617
Ερώτηση
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
Απάντηση
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
Κάρτα 618
Ερώτηση
Autism spectrum disorder?
Απάντηση
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
Κάρτα 619
Ερώτηση
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
Απάντηση
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
Κάρτα 620
Ερώτηση
Major depressive disorder?
Απάντηση
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
Κάρτα 621
Ερώτηση
Specific phobia?
Απάντηση
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
Κάρτα 622
Ερώτηση
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
Απάντηση
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
Κάρτα 623
Ερώτηση
Dissociative amnesia?
Απάντηση
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
Κάρτα 624
Ερώτηση
Bipolar I disorder?
Απάντηση
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
Κάρτα 625
Ερώτηση
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
Απάντηση
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
Κάρτα 626
Ερώτηση
Anorexia nervosa?
Απάντηση
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
Κάρτα 627
Ερώτηση
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
Απάντηση
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
Κάρτα 628
Ερώτηση
Bipolar II disorder?
Απάντηση
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
Κάρτα 629
Ερώτηση
Purpose of the ICD?
Απάντηση
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
Κάρτα 630
Ερώτηση
Bulimia nervosa?
Απάντηση
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
Κάρτα 631
Ερώτηση
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
Απάντηση
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
Κάρτα 632
Ερώτηση
Ataque de nervios?
Απάντηση
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
Κάρτα 633
Ερώτηση
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
Απάντηση
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
Κάρτα 634
Ερώτηση
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
Απάντηση
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
Κάρτα 635
Ερώτηση
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
Απάντηση
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
Κάρτα 636
Ερώτηση
Comorbidity?
Απάντηση
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
Κάρτα 637
Ερώτηση
Humanistic explanation of distress?
Απάντηση
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
Κάρτα 638
Ερώτηση
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
Απάντηση
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
Κάρτα 639
Ερώτηση
Stigma around mental disorder?
Απάντηση
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
Κάρτα 640
Ερώτηση
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
Απάντηση
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
Κάρτα 641
Ερώτηση
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
Απάντηση
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
Κάρτα 642
Ερώτηση
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
Απάντηση
Interrater reliability.
Κάρτα 643
Ερώτηση
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
Απάντηση
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
Κάρτα 644
Ερώτηση
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
Απάντηση
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
Κάρτα 645
Ερώτηση
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
Απάντηση
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
Κάρτα 646
Ερώτηση
Delusion?
Απάντηση
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
Κάρτα 647
Ερώτηση
Agoraphobia?
Απάντηση
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
Κάρτα 648
Ερώτηση
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
Απάντηση
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
Κάρτα 649
Ερώτηση
Eclectic approach to disorder?
Απάντηση
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
Κάρτα 650
Ερώτηση
Hallucination?
Απάντηση
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
Κάρτα 651
Ερώτηση
Panic disorder?
Απάντηση
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
Κάρτα 652
Ερώτηση
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
Απάντηση
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
Κάρτα 653
Ερώτηση
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
Απάντηση
The diathesis–stress model.
Κάρτα 654
Ερώτηση
Cluster A personality disorders?
Απάντηση
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
Κάρτα 655
Ερώτηση
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
Απάντηση
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
Κάρτα 656
Ερώτηση
Evidence-based treatment?
Απάντηση
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
Κάρτα 657
Ερώτηση
Therapeutic alliance?
Απάντηση
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
Κάρτα 658
Ερώτηση
Cultural humility in therapy?
Απάντηση
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
Κάρτα 659
Ερώτηση
Deinstitutionalization?
Απάντηση
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
Κάρτα 660
Ερώτηση
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
Απάντηση
Exposure therapy.
Κάρτα 661
Ερώτηση
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
Απάντηση
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
Κάρτα 662
Ερώτηση
Four medication categories in the course?
Απάντηση
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
Κάρτα 663
Ερώτηση
Depressive cognitive triad?
Απάντηση
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
Κάρτα 664
Ερώτηση
Applied behavior analysis?
Απάντηση
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
Κάρτα 665
Ερώτηση
Psychosurgery?
Απάντηση
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
Κάρτα 666
Ερώτηση
Free association?
Απάντηση
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
Κάρτα 667
Ερώτηση
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
Απάντηση
Cognitive restructuring.
Κάρτα 668
Ερώτηση
One advantage of group therapy?
Απάντηση
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
Κάρτα 669
Ερώτηση
Lobotomy?
Απάντηση
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
Κάρτα 670
Ερώτηση
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
Απάντηση
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
Κάρτα 671
Ερώτηση
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
Απάντηση
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
Κάρτα 672
Ερώτηση
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
Απάντηση
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
Κάρτα 673
Ερώτηση
Social anxiety disorder?
Απάντηση
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
Κάρτα 674
Ερώτηση
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
Απάντηση
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
Κάρτα 675
Ερώτηση
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
Απάντηση
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
Κάρτα 676
Ερώτηση
Dissociative fugue?
Απάντηση
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
Κάρτα 677
Ερώτηση
Cluster B personality disorders?
Απάντηση
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
Κάρτα 678
Ερώτηση
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
Απάντηση
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
Κάρτα 679
Ερώτηση
Catatonia?
Απάντηση
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
Κάρτα 680
Ερώτηση
Manic episode?
Απάντηση
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
Κάρτα 681
Ερώτηση
Dissociative identity disorder?
Απάντηση
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
Κάρτα 682
Ερώτηση
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
Απάντηση
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
Κάρτα 683
Ερώτηση
Cluster C personality disorders?
Απάντηση
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
Κάρτα 684
Ερώτηση
Taijin kyofusho?
Απάντηση
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
Κάρτα 685
Ερώτηση
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
Απάντηση
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
Κάρτα 686
Ερώτηση
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
Απάντηση
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
Κάρτα 687
Ερώτηση
Hypomanic episode?
Απάντηση
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
Κάρτα 688
Ερώτηση
Generalized anxiety disorder?
Απάντηση
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
Κάρτα 689
Ερώτηση
Hoarding disorder?
Απάντηση
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
Κάρτα 690
Ερώτηση
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
Απάντηση
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
Κάρτα 691
Ερώτηση
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
Απάντηση
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
Κάρτα 692
Ερώτηση
Persistent depressive disorder?
Απάντηση
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
Κάρτα 693
Ερώτηση
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
Απάντηση
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
Κάρτα 694
Ερώτηση
Systematic desensitization?
Απάντηση
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
Κάρτα 695
Ερώτηση
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
Απάντηση
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
Κάρτα 696
Ερώτηση
Dialectical behavior therapy?
Απάντηση
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
Κάρτα 697
Ερώτηση
Integrity in therapy ethics?
Απάντηση
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
Κάρτα 698
Ερώτηση
Aversion therapy?
Απάντηση
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
Κάρτα 699
Ερώτηση
Tardive dyskinesia?
Απάντηση
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
Κάρτα 700
Ερώτηση
ECT versus TMS?
Απάντηση
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
Κάρτα 701
Ερώτηση
Respect for rights and dignity?
Απάντηση
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
Κάρτα 702
Ερώτηση
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
Απάντηση
A token economy.
Κάρτα 703
Ερώτηση
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
Απάντηση
Person-centered therapy.
Κάρτα 704
Ερώτηση
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
Απάντηση
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
Κάρτα 705
Ερώτηση
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
Απάντηση
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.
705 κάρτες
AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
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