AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
Review all five AP® Psychology units with 705 independently written cards covering concepts, scenarios, research methods, data interpretation, and evidence-based reasoning.
Про цю колоду
Review all five units in the AP® Psychology course framework with 705 independently written English flashcards. The deck covers Biological Bases of Behavior, Cognition, Development and Learning, Social Psychology and Personality, and Mental and Physical Health. It supports all four science practices: Concept Application, Research Methods and Design, Data Interpretation, and Argumentation.
What the cards ask you to retrieve
- Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
- Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
- Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
- Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
- Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.
The order follows Units 1–5, keeps related material within the current or next topic, and introduces prerequisites and chronological steps first. Definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are separated by at least three unrelated cards. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences remain adjacent only when that progression helps learning.
What's deliberately left out
The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or use long essay prompts. It also leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.
Check the official AP Psychology course page for authoritative requirements. Psychological facts and the course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, ordering, and inherited generated cover, to the extent those rights exist.
This is an independent, unofficial study aid. It isn't affiliated with, endorsed by, sponsored by, or official material from College Board or the AP Program. AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this product. No College Board examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or trade dress were copied or adapted.
Картки в цій колоді
Картка 1
Питання
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
Відповідь
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
Картка 2
Питання
Central nervous system?
Відповідь
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
Картка 3
Питання
Main role of the spinal cord?
Відповідь
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
Картка 4
Питання
Scores are
4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?Відповідь
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
Картка 5
Питання
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
Відповідь
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
Картка 6
Питання
Peripheral nervous system?
Відповідь
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
Картка 7
Питання
Reflex arc?
Відповідь
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
Картка 8
Питання
Reflex times are
180, 190, 210, 260, 410milliseconds. What is the median?Відповідь
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
Картка 9
Питання
Heritability?
Відповідь
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
Картка 10
Питання
Autonomic nervous system?
Відповідь
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
Картка 11
Питання
Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
Відповідь
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
Картка 12
Питання
Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
Відповідь
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
Картка 13
Питання
Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
Відповідь
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
Картка 14
Питання
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
Відповідь
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
Картка 15
Питання
Natural selection?
Відповідь
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
Картка 16
Питання
Somatic nervous system?
Відповідь
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
Картка 17
Питання
Sensory neurons?
Відповідь
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
Картка 18
Питання
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
Відповідь
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
Картка 19
Питання
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
Відповідь
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
Картка 20
Питання
Sympathetic nervous system?
Відповідь
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
Картка 21
Питання
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
Відповідь
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
Картка 22
Питання
Motor neurons?
Відповідь
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
Картка 23
Питання
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
Відповідь
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
Картка 24
Питання
Parasympathetic nervous system?
Відповідь
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
Картка 25
Питання
Resting potential?
Відповідь
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
Картка 26
Питання
Interneurons?
Відповідь
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
Картка 27
Питання
Adrenaline's behavioral role?
Відповідь
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
Картка 28
Питання
Frontal lobes?
Відповідь
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
Картка 29
Питання
Neural threshold?
Відповідь
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
Картка 30
Питання
Corpus callosum?
Відповідь
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
Картка 31
Питання
Leptin's role in eating?
Відповідь
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
Картка 32
Питання
Temporal lobes?
Відповідь
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
Картка 33
Питання
Depolarization during an action potential?
Відповідь
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
Картка 34
Питання
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
Відповідь
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
Картка 35
Питання
Ghrelin's role in eating?
Відповідь
It helps stimulate hunger.
Картка 36
Питання
Drug agonist?
Відповідь
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
Картка 37
Питання
Action potential?
Відповідь
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
Картка 38
Питання
Reuptake?
Відповідь
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
Картка 39
Питання
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
Відповідь
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
Картка 40
Питання
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
Відповідь
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
Картка 41
Питання
Refractory period?
Відповідь
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
Картка 42
Питання
Melatonin's role?
Відповідь
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
Картка 43
Питання
Drug antagonist?
Відповідь
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
Картка 44
Питання
Stimulants?
Відповідь
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
Картка 45
Питання
Drug tolerance?
Відповідь
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
Картка 46
Питання
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Відповідь
Multiple sclerosis.
Картка 47
Питання
All-or-none principle?
Відповідь
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
Картка 48
Питання
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
Відповідь
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
Картка 49
Питання
GABA's major psychological function?
Відповідь
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
Картка 50
Питання
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
Відповідь
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
Картка 51
Питання
Reuptake inhibitor?
Відповідь
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
Картка 52
Питання
Depressants?
Відповідь
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
Картка 53
Питання
Drug withdrawal?
Відповідь
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
Картка 54
Питання
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Відповідь
Myasthenia gravis.
Картка 55
Питання
Glial cells?
Відповідь
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
Картка 56
Питання
Endorphins?
Відповідь
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
Картка 57
Питання
Substance P?
Відповідь
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
Картка 58
Питання
Acetylcholine's major functions?
Відповідь
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
Картка 59
Питання
Opioids?
Відповідь
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
Картка 60
Питання
Hallucinogens?
Відповідь
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
Картка 61
Питання
Addiction?
Відповідь
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
Картка 62
Питання
Parietal lobes?
Відповідь
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
Картка 63
Питання
Consciousness?
Відповідь
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
Картка 64
Питання
Circadian rhythm?
Відповідь
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
Картка 65
Питання
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
Відповідь
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
Картка 66
Питання
Occipital lobes?
Відповідь
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
Картка 67
Питання
What does split-brain research reveal?
Відповідь
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
Картка 68
Питання
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
Відповідь
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
Картка 69
Питання
NREM-1 sleep?
Відповідь
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
Картка 70
Питання
Motor cortex?
Відповідь
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
Картка 71
Питання
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
Відповідь
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
Картка 72
Питання
Brainstem's core function?
Відповідь
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
Картка 73
Питання
NREM-2 sleep?
Відповідь
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
Картка 74
Питання
Somatosensory cortex?
Відповідь
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
Картка 75
Питання
Medulla's main functions?
Відповідь
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Картка 76
Питання
Reticular activating system?
Відповідь
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
Картка 77
Питання
NREM-3 sleep?
Відповідь
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
Картка 78
Питання
Cerebellum's main functions?
Відповідь
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
Картка 79
Питання
Thalamus?
Відповідь
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
Картка 80
Питання
Hypothalamus?
Відповідь
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
Картка 81
Питання
REM sleep?
Відповідь
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
Картка 82
Питання
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
Відповідь
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
Картка 83
Питання
Amygdala?
Відповідь
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
Картка 84
Питання
Hippocampus?
Відповідь
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
Картка 85
Питання
How does sleep change across a typical night?
Відповідь
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
Картка 86
Питання
Contralateral brain control?
Відповідь
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
Картка 87
Питання
What does an EEG measure?
Відповідь
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
Картка 88
Питання
Reward-center activity?
Відповідь
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
Картка 89
Питання
Neuroplasticity?
Відповідь
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
Картка 90
Питання
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
Відповідь
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
Картка 91
Питання
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
Відповідь
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
Картка 92
Питання
Insomnia?
Відповідь
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
Картка 93
Питання
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
Відповідь
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
Картка 94
Питання
Absolute threshold?
Відповідь
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
Картка 95
Питання
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
Відповідь
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
Картка 96
Питання
Narcolepsy?
Відповідь
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
Картка 97
Питання
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
Відповідь
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
Картка 98
Питання
Difference threshold?
Відповідь
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
Картка 99
Питання
Consolidation view of dreams?
Відповідь
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
Картка 100
Питання
REM sleep behavior disorder?
Відповідь
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
Картка 101
Питання
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
Відповідь
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
Картка 102
Питання
Weber's law?
Відповідь
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
Картка 103
Питання
Two supported functions of sleep?
Відповідь
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
Картка 104
Питання
Sleep apnea?
Відповідь
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
Картка 105
Питання
REM rebound?
Відповідь
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
Картка 106
Питання
Signal detection theory?
Відповідь
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
Картка 107
Питання
Sensory transduction?
Відповідь
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
Картка 108
Питання
Vestibular sense?
Відповідь
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
Картка 109
Питання
Somnambulism?
Відповідь
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
Картка 110
Питання
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
Відповідь
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
Картка 111
Питання
What begins visual transduction?
Відповідь
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
Картка 112
Питання
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
Відповідь
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
Картка 113
Питання
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
Відповідь
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
Картка 114
Питання
Accommodation in vision?
Відповідь
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
Картка 115
Питання
Cones?
Відповідь
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
Картка 116
Питання
What begins auditory transduction?
Відповідь
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
Картка 117
Питання
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
Відповідь
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
Картка 118
Питання
How is smell unusual among the senses?
Відповідь
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
Картка 119
Питання
Kinesthesia?
Відповідь
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
Картка 120
Питання
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
Відповідь
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
Картка 121
Питання
Nearsightedness?
Відповідь
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
Картка 122
Питання
Pheromones?
Відповідь
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
Картка 123
Питання
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
Відповідь
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
Картка 124
Питання
Volley theory of pitch?
Відповідь
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
Картка 125
Питання
Farsightedness?
Відповідь
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
Картка 126
Питання
Six taste qualities named in the course?
Відповідь
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
Картка 127
Питання
Phantom-limb sensation?
Відповідь
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
Картка 128
Питання
Sensory interaction?
Відповідь
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
Картка 129
Питання
What causes most color-vision deficiency?
Відповідь
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
Картка 130
Питання
Prosopagnosia?
Відповідь
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
Картка 131
Питання
Rods?
Відповідь
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
Картка 132
Питання
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
Відповідь
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
Картка 133
Питання
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
Відповідь
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
Картка 134
Питання
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
Відповідь
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
Картка 135
Питання
What do the semicircular canals detect?
Відповідь
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
Картка 136
Питання
Synesthesia?
Відповідь
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
Картка 137
Питання
Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
Відповідь
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
Картка 138
Питання
Blindsight?
Відповідь
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
Картка 139
Питання
Sensory adaptation?
Відповідь
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
Картка 140
Питання
Gate-control view of pain?
Відповідь
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
Картка 141
Питання
Bottom-up processing?
Відповідь
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
Картка 142
Питання
Concept?
Відповідь
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Картка 143
Питання
Fixation in problem solving?
Відповідь
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
Картка 144
Питання
Algorithm?
Відповідь
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
Картка 145
Питання
Top-down processing?
Відповідь
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
Картка 146
Питання
Confirmation bias?
Відповідь
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
Картка 147
Питання
Retinal disparity?
Відповідь
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
Картка 148
Питання
Heuristic?
Відповідь
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
Картка 149
Питання
Selective attention?
Відповідь
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
Картка 150
Питання
Figure–ground organization?
Відповідь
Separating the object of attention from its background.
Картка 151
Питання
Convergence as a depth cue?
Відповідь
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
Картка 152
Питання
Representativeness heuristic?
Відповідь
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
Картка 153
Питання
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
Відповідь
Inattentional blindness.
Картка 154
Питання
Gestalt proximity principle?
Відповідь
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
Картка 155
Питання
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
Відповідь
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
Картка 156
Питання
Cocktail-party effect?
Відповідь
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
Картка 157
Питання
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
Відповідь
Change blindness.
Картка 158
Питання
Gestalt similarity principle?
Відповідь
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
Картка 159
Питання
Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
Відповідь
Linear perspective.
Картка 160
Питання
Perceptual constancy?
Відповідь
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
Картка 161
Питання
Perceptual set?
Відповідь
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
Картка 162
Питання
Gestalt closure principle?
Відповідь
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
Картка 163
Питання
One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
Відповідь
The blocking object, using interposition.
Картка 164
Питання
Apparent motion?
Відповідь
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
Картка 165
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Availability heuristic?
Відповідь
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
Картка 166
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Divergent thinking?
Відповідь
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
Картка 167
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A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
Відповідь
Relative clarity.
Картка 168
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Prototype?
Відповідь
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
Картка 169
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Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
Відповідь
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
Картка 170
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Convergent thinking?
Відповідь
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
Картка 171
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A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
Відповідь
Texture gradient.
Картка 172
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Belief perseverance?
Відповідь
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
Картка 173
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Explicit memory?
Відповідь
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
Картка 174
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Three stores in the multi-store model?
Відповідь
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Картка 175
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Seeing an object only in its usual role?
Відповідь
Functional fixedness.
Картка 176
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Mental set?
Відповідь
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
Картка 177
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Episodic memory?
Відповідь
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
Картка 178
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Working memory?
Відповідь
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
Картка 179
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Insight?
Відповідь
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Картка 180
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Framing effect?
Відповідь
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
Картка 181
Питання
Implicit memory?
Відповідь
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
Картка 182
Питання
Overconfidence bias?
Відповідь
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
Картка 183
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Anchoring bias?
Відповідь
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
Картка 184
Питання
Schema in thinking?
Відповідь
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
Картка 185
Питання
Procedural memory?
Відповідь
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
Картка 186
Питання
Gambler's fallacy?
Відповідь
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
Картка 187
Питання
Sunk-cost fallacy?
Відповідь
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
Картка 188
Питання
Executive functions?
Відповідь
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
Картка 189
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How can priming affect judgment?
Відповідь
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
Картка 190
Питання
Central executive in working memory?
Відповідь
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
Картка 191
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Serial-position effect?
Відповідь
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
Картка 192
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Semantic memory?
Відповідь
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
Картка 193
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Levels-of-processing principle?
Відповідь
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
Картка 194
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Automatic processing?
Відповідь
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
Картка 195
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Maintenance rehearsal?
Відповідь
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
Картка 196
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Prospective memory?
Відповідь
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
Картка 197
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Primacy effect?
Відповідь
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
Картка 198
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Long-term memory?
Відповідь
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
Картка 199
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Highly superior autobiographical memory?
Відповідь
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
Картка 200
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Effortful processing?
Відповідь
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
Картка 201
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Elaborative rehearsal?
Відповідь
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
Картка 202
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Memory consolidation?
Відповідь
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
Картка 203
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Recency effect?
Відповідь
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
Картка 204
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Spacing effect?
Відповідь
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
Картка 205
Питання
Testing effect?
Відповідь
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
Картка 206
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Chunking?
Відповідь
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
Картка 207
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Mnemonic?
Відповідь
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
Картка 208
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Why organize material into a hierarchy?
Відповідь
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
Картка 209
Питання
How can a schema help encoding?
Відповідь
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
Картка 210
Питання
Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
Відповідь
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
Картка 211
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Iconic memory?
Відповідь
A very brief visual sensory memory.
Картка 212
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Recall?
Відповідь
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
Картка 213
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Retrieval cue?
Відповідь
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
Картка 214
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Encoding-specificity principle?
Відповідь
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
Картка 215
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Context-dependent memory?
Відповідь
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
Картка 216
Питання
Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
Відповідь
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
Картка 217
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Echoic memory?
Відповідь
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
Картка 218
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Anterograde amnesia?
Відповідь
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
Картка 219
Питання
Phonological loop?
Відповідь
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
Картка 220
Питання
Cerebellum's memory role?
Відповідь
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
Картка 221
Питання
Why is short-term memory described as limited?
Відповідь
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
Картка 222
Питання
Retrograde amnesia?
Відповідь
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
Картка 223
Питання
Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
Відповідь
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
Картка 224
Питання
How can the amygdala affect memory?
Відповідь
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
Картка 225
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Visuospatial sketchpad?
Відповідь
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
Картка 226
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Long-term potentiation?
Відповідь
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
Картка 227
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Infantile amnesia?
Відповідь
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
Картка 228
Питання
Alzheimer's disease?
Відповідь
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
Картка 229
Питання
Scores are
2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?Відповідь
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because
9 - 2 = 7.Картка 230
Питання
Recognition?
Відповідь
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
Картка 231
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Why is memory called reconstructive?
Відповідь
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
Картка 232
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Storage decay?
Відповідь
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
Картка 233
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State-dependent memory?
Відповідь
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
Картка 234
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Relearning?
Відповідь
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
Картка 235
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Misinformation effect?
Відповідь
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
Картка 236
Питання
A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
Відповідь
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
Картка 237
Питання
Mood-congruent memory?
Відповідь
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
Картка 238
Питання
Priming?
Відповідь
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
Картка 239
Питання
Tip-of-the-tongue state?
Відповідь
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
Картка 240
Питання
Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
Відповідь
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
Картка 241
Питання
Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
Відповідь
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
Картка 242
Питання
Metacognition?
Відповідь
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
Картка 243
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Source amnesia?
Відповідь
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
Картка 244
Питання
Test standardization?
Відповідь
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
Картка 245
Питання
Reliability?
Відповідь
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
Картка 246
Питання
Stereotype threat?
Відповідь
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
Картка 247
Питання
General intelligence, or g?
Відповідь
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
Картка 248
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Encoding failure?
Відповідь
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
Картка 249
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Validity?
Відповідь
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
Картка 250
Питання
Proactive interference?
Відповідь
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
Картка 251
Питання
Imagination inflation?
Відповідь
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
Картка 252
Питання
A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
Відповідь
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
Картка 253
Питання
Retrieval failure?
Відповідь
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
Картка 254
Питання
Retroactive interference?
Відповідь
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
Картка 255
Питання
A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
Відповідь
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
Картка 256
Питання
Repression in psychodynamic theory?
Відповідь
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
Картка 257
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Flashbulb memory?
Відповідь
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
Картка 258
Питання
A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
Відповідь
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
Картка 259
Питання
A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
Відповідь
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
Картка 260
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Stereotype lift?
Відповідь
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
Картка 261
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Achievement test?
Відповідь
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
Картка 262
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Construct validity?
Відповідь
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
Картка 263
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Test–retest reliability?
Відповідь
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
Картка 264
Питання
Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
Відповідь
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
Картка 265
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Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
Відповідь
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
Картка 266
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Aptitude test?
Відповідь
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
Картка 267
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Traditional IQ formula?
Відповідь
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
Картка 268
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Predictive validity?
Відповідь
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
Картка 269
Питання
What does a normal score distribution look like?
Відповідь
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
Картка 270
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Split-half reliability?
Відповідь
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
Картка 271
Питання
Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
Відповідь
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
Картка 272
Питання
Flynn effect?
Відповідь
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
Картка 273
Питання
A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
Відповідь
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
Картка 274
Питання
Continuous versus stage development?
Відповідь
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
Картка 275
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How can prenatal environment affect later development?
Відповідь
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
Картка 276
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Teratogen?
Відповідь
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
Картка 277
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Maturation?
Відповідь
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
Картка 278
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Stability–change question in development?
Відповідь
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
Картка 279
Питання
A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
Відповідь
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
Картка 280
Питання
Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
Відповідь
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
Картка 281
Питання
Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
Відповідь
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
Картка 282
Питання
Fine versus gross motor skills?
Відповідь
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
Картка 283
Питання
Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
Відповідь
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
Картка 284
Питання
What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
Відповідь
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
Картка 285
Питання
Puberty?
Відповідь
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
Картка 286
Питання
Sensitive period?
Відповідь
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
Картка 287
Питання
What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
Відповідь
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
Картка 288
Питання
Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
Відповідь
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
Картка 289
Питання
Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
Відповідь
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
Картка 290
Питання
Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
Відповідь
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
Картка 291
Питання
Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
Відповідь
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
Картка 292
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Menarche?
Відповідь
The first menstrual period.
Картка 293
Питання
Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
Відповідь
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
Картка 294
Питання
About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
Відповідь
About 68%.
Картка 295
Питання
A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
Відповідь
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
Картка 296
Питання
Spermarche?
Відповідь
The first ejaculation.
Картка 297
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Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
Відповідь
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
Картка 298
Питання
Imprinting?
Відповідь
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
Картка 299
Питання
Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
Відповідь
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
Картка 300
Питання
Menopause?
Відповідь
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
Картка 301
Питання
Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
Відповідь
Naturalistic observation.
Картка 302
Питання
How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
Відповідь
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
Картка 303
Питання
Gender identity?
Відповідь
A person's internal sense of their gender.
Картка 304
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Gender role?
Відповідь
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
Картка 305
Питання
Sex versus gender?
Відповідь
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
Картка 306
Питання
Common sensory change in later adulthood?
Відповідь
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
Картка 307
Питання
Sexual orientation?
Відповідь
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
Картка 308
Питання
Gender schema?
Відповідь
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
Картка 309
Питання
Best broad view of gender development?
Відповідь
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
Картка 310
Питання
Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
Відповідь
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
Картка 311
Питання
Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
Відповідь
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
Картка 312
Питання
Schema in cognitive development?
Відповідь
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
Картка 313
Питання
Sensorimotor stage?
Відповідь
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
Картка 314
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Preoperational stage?
Відповідь
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
Картка 315
Питання
Assimilation?
Відповідь
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
Картка 316
Питання
A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
Відповідь
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
Картка 317
Питання
Animism in preoperational thought?
Відповідь
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
Картка 318
Питання
Concrete operational stage?
Відповідь
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
Картка 319
Питання
Accommodation?
Відповідь
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
Картка 320
Питання
Reversibility in cognitive development?
Відповідь
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
Картка 321
Питання
How can social learning shape gender expression?
Відповідь
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
Картка 322
Питання
A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
Відповідь
Assimilation.
Картка 323
Питання
Language?
Відповідь
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
Картка 324
Питання
Cooing stage?
Відповідь
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
Картка 325
Питання
Babbling stage?
Відповідь
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
Картка 326
Питання
One-word stage?
Відповідь
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
Картка 327
Питання
Grammar?
Відповідь
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
Картка 328
Питання
A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
Відповідь
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
Картка 329
Питання
Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
Відповідь
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
Картка 330
Питання
A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
Відповідь
Accommodation.
Картка 331
Питання
A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
Відповідь
Scaffolding.
Картка 332
Питання
A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
Відповідь
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
Картка 333
Питання
Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
Відповідь
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
Картка 334
Питання
An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
Відповідь
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
Картка 335
Питання
Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
Відповідь
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
Картка 336
Питання
Formal operational stage?
Відповідь
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
Картка 337
Питання
Dementia?
Відповідь
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
Картка 338
Питання
Phoneme?
Відповідь
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
Картка 339
Питання
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
Відповідь
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
Картка 340
Питання
Temperament?
Відповідь
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
Картка 341
Питання
Attachment?
Відповідь
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
Картка 342
Питання
Erikson's infancy conflict?
Відповідь
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
Картка 343
Питання
Microsystem?
Відповідь
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
Картка 344
Питання
Erikson's toddler conflict?
Відповідь
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
Картка 345
Питання
Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
Відповідь
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
Картка 346
Питання
Erikson's school-age conflict?
Відповідь
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
Картка 347
Питання
Mesosystem?
Відповідь
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
Картка 348
Питання
Erikson's adolescent conflict?
Відповідь
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
Картка 349
Питання
Erikson's young-adult conflict?
Відповідь
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
Картка 350
Питання
Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
Відповідь
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
Картка 351
Питання
Exosystem?
Відповідь
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
Картка 352
Питання
Morpheme?
Відповідь
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
Картка 353
Питання
Telegraphic speech?
Відповідь
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
705 карток
AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
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Картка 354
Питання
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
Відповідь
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
Картка 355
Питання
Macrosystem?
Відповідь
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
Картка 356
Питання
Semantics?
Відповідь
The meanings of words and sentences.
Картка 357
Питання
A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
Відповідь
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
Картка 358
Питання
What does a sensitive period for language imply?
Відповідь
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
Картка 359
Питання
Does language completely determine thought?
Відповідь
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
Картка 360
Питання
Syntax?
Відповідь
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
Картка 361
Питання
A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
Відповідь
Secure attachment.
Картка 362
Питання
How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
Відповідь
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
Картка 363
Питання
Authoritative parenting?
Відповідь
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
Картка 364
Питання
Identity achievement?
Відповідь
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
Картка 365
Питання
Avoidant attachment pattern?
Відповідь
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
Картка 366
Питання
Classical conditioning?
Відповідь
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
Картка 367
Питання
Unconditioned stimulus?
Відповідь
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
Картка 368
Питання
Unconditioned response?
Відповідь
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
Картка 369
Питання
Conditioned stimulus?
Відповідь
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
Картка 370
Питання
Conditioned response?
Відповідь
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Картка 371
Питання
Acquisition in classical conditioning?
Відповідь
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Картка 372
Питання
During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
Відповідь
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
Картка 373
Питання
Authoritarian parenting?
Відповідь
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
Картка 374
Питання
Identity diffusion?
Відповідь
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
Картка 375
Питання
Extinction in classical conditioning?
Відповідь
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
Картка 376
Питання
Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
Відповідь
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
Картка 377
Питання
Permissive parenting?
Відповідь
High warmth with few demands or limits.
Картка 378
Питання
Parallel play?
Відповідь
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
Картка 379
Питання
Imaginary audience?
Відповідь
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
Картка 380
Питання
Identity foreclosure?
Відповідь
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
Картка 381
Питання
Disorganized attachment pattern?
Відповідь
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
Картка 382
Питання
Neglectful parenting?
Відповідь
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
Картка 383
Питання
Chronosystem?
Відповідь
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
Картка 384
Питання
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
Відповідь
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
Картка 385
Питання
Personal fable?
Відповідь
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
Картка 386
Питання
Identity moratorium?
Відповідь
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
Картка 387
Питання
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
Відповідь
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
Картка 388
Питання
Separation anxiety in infancy?
Відповідь
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
Картка 389
Питання
What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
Відповідь
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
Картка 390
Питання
Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
Відповідь
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
Картка 391
Питання
Emerging adulthood?
Відповідь
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
Картка 392
Питання
Social clock?
Відповідь
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
Картка 393
Питання
Erikson's later-adult conflict?
Відповідь
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
Картка 394
Питання
Possible selves?
Відповідь
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
Картка 395
Питання
Stimulus generalization?
Відповідь
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
Картка 396
Питання
Operant conditioning?
Відповідь
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
Картка 397
Питання
Law of effect?
Відповідь
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
Картка 398
Питання
Spontaneous recovery?
Відповідь
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
Картка 399
Питання
Stimulus discrimination?
Відповідь
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
Картка 400
Питання
Reinforcement?
Відповідь
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
Картка 401
Питання
Higher-order conditioning?
Відповідь
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
Картка 402
Питання
Counterconditioning?
Відповідь
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
Картка 403
Питання
Habituation?
Відповідь
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
Картка 404
Питання
Punishment?
Відповідь
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
Картка 405
Питання
Partial reinforcement?
Відповідь
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
Картка 406
Питання
Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
Відповідь
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
Картка 407
Питання
Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
Відповідь
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
Картка 408
Питання
Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
Відповідь
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
Картка 409
Питання
Fixed-ratio schedule?
Відповідь
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
Картка 410
Питання
Observational learning?
Відповідь
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
Картка 411
Питання
A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
Відповідь
Positive reinforcement.
Картка 412
Питання
Primary reinforcer?
Відповідь
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
Картка 413
Питання
Variable-ratio schedule?
Відповідь
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
Картка 414
Питання
Modeling?
Відповідь
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
Картка 415
Питання
Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
Відповідь
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
Картка 416
Питання
Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
Відповідь
Negative reinforcement.
Картка 417
Питання
Conditioned reinforcer?
Відповідь
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
Картка 418
Питання
A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
Відповідь
Vicarious reinforcement.
Картка 419
Питання
Fixed-interval schedule?
Відповідь
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
Картка 420
Питання
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
Відповідь
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
Картка 421
Питання
A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
Відповідь
Positive punishment.
Картка 422
Питання
Shaping?
Відповідь
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
Картка 423
Питання
Extinction in operant conditioning?
Відповідь
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
Картка 424
Питання
Variable-interval schedule?
Відповідь
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
Картка 425
Питання
A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
Відповідь
Negative punishment.
Картка 426
Питання
Learned helplessness?
Відповідь
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
Картка 427
Питання
Continuous reinforcement?
Відповідь
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
Картка 428
Питання
A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
Відповідь
A fixed-interval schedule.
Картка 429
Питання
Discriminative stimulus?
Відповідь
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
Картка 430
Питання
Operant generalization versus discrimination?
Відповідь
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
Картка 431
Питання
Instinctive drift?
Відповідь
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
Картка 432
Питання
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
Відповідь
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
Картка 433
Питання
How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
Відповідь
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
Картка 434
Питання
How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
Відповідь
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
Картка 435
Питання
Vicarious conditioning?
Відповідь
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
Картка 436
Питання
A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
Відповідь
A variable-interval schedule.
Картка 437
Питання
Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
Відповідь
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
Картка 438
Питання
Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
Відповідь
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
Картка 439
Питання
Latent learning?
Відповідь
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
Картка 440
Питання
Cognitive map?
Відповідь
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
Картка 441
Питання
Insight learning?
Відповідь
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
Картка 442
Питання
Biological preparedness?
Відповідь
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
Картка 443
Питання
What can mirror-neuron activity show?
Відповідь
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
Картка 444
Питання
Attribution?
Відповідь
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
Картка 445
Питання
Attitude?
Відповідь
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
Картка 446
Питання
Upward social comparison?
Відповідь
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
Картка 447
Питання
Optimistic explanatory style?
Відповідь
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
Картка 448
Питання
Situational attribution?
Відповідь
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
Картка 449
Питання
A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
Відповідь
Cognitive dissonance.
Картка 450
Питання
Downward social comparison?
Відповідь
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
Картка 451
Питання
Internal locus of control?
Відповідь
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
Картка 452
Питання
Dispositional attribution?
Відповідь
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
Картка 453
Питання
Pessimistic explanatory style?
Відповідь
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
Картка 454
Питання
Relative deprivation?
Відповідь
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
Картка 455
Питання
External locus of control?
Відповідь
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
Картка 456
Питання
Fundamental attribution error?
Відповідь
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
Картка 457
Питання
Halo effect?
Відповідь
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
Картка 458
Питання
Self-fulfilling prophecy?
Відповідь
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
Картка 459
Питання
Mere-exposure effect?
Відповідь
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
Картка 460
Питання
A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
Відповідь
The actor–observer difference.
Картка 461
Питання
A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
Відповідь
The central route.
Картка 462
Питання
Effort justification?
Відповідь
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
Картка 463
Питання
Stereotype?
Відповідь
A generalized belief about members of a group.
Картка 464
Питання
A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
Відповідь
Self-serving bias.
Картка 465
Питання
A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
Відповідь
The peripheral route.
Картка 466
Питання
Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
Відповідь
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
Картка 467
Питання
Prejudice?
Відповідь
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
Картка 468
Питання
The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:
Workload Errors Low 2 High 8 Which attribution is better supported?
Відповідь
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
Картка 469
Питання
Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
Відповідь
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
Картка 470
Питання
Conformity?
Відповідь
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
Картка 471
Питання
Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
Відповідь
The bystander effect.
Картка 472
Питання
Diffusion of responsibility?
Відповідь
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
Картка 473
Питання
How can taking on a role affect attitude?
Відповідь
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
Картка 474
Питання
In-group bias?
Відповідь
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
Картка 475
Питання
After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
Відповідь
The foot-in-the-door technique.
Картка 476
Питання
A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
Відповідь
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
Картка 477
Питання
When do attitudes best predict behavior?
Відповідь
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
Картка 478
Питання
Discrimination?
Відповідь
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
Картка 479
Питання
Out-group homogeneity effect?
Відповідь
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
Картка 480
Питання
After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
Відповідь
The door-in-the-face technique.
Картка 481
Питання
A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
Відповідь
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
Картка 482
Питання
Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
Відповідь
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
Картка 483
Питання
Just-world belief?
Відповідь
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
Картка 484
Питання
Implicit attitude?
Відповідь
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
Картка 485
Питання
Ethnocentrism?
Відповідь
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
Картка 486
Питання
How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
Відповідь
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
Картка 487
Питання
Normative social influence?
Відповідь
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
Картка 488
Питання
Psychodynamic view of personality?
Відповідь
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
Картка 489
Питання
Norm of reciprocity?
Відповідь
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
Картка 490
Питання
Individualism?
Відповідь
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
Картка 491
Питання
Informational social influence?
Відповідь
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
Картка 492
Питання
Id?
Відповідь
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
Картка 493
Питання
Altruism?
Відповідь
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
Картка 494
Питання
Social norm?
Відповідь
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
Картка 495
Питання
What tends to increase conformity?
Відповідь
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
Картка 496
Питання
Ego?
Відповідь
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
Картка 497
Питання
A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
Відповідь
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
Картка 498
Питання
Collectivism?
Відповідь
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
Картка 499
Питання
Obedience?
Відповідь
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
Картка 500
Питання
Superego?
Відповідь
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
Картка 501
Питання
A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
Відповідь
Denial.
Картка 502
Питання
Social-responsibility norm?
Відповідь
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
Картка 503
Питання
How does proximity affect attraction?
Відповідь
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
Картка 504
Питання
What tends to increase obedience?
Відповідь
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
Картка 505
Питання
After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
Відповідь
Displacement.
Картка 506
Питання
Social loafing?
Відповідь
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
Картка 507
Питання
Multiculturalism?
Відповідь
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
Картка 508
Питання
How does similarity affect attraction?
Відповідь
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
Картка 509
Питання
A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
Відповідь
Projection.
Картка 510
Питання
Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
Відповідь
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
Картка 511
Питання
Deindividuation?
Відповідь
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
Картка 512
Питання
Group polarization?
Відповідь
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
Картка 513
Питання
After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
Відповідь
Rationalization.
Картка 514
Питання
A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
Відповідь
Groupthink.
Картка 515
Питання
Pluralistic ignorance?
Відповідь
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
Картка 516
Питання
Social trap?
Відповідь
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
Картка 517
Питання
Reaction formation?
Відповідь
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
Картка 518
Питання
Superordinate goal?
Відповідь
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
Картка 519
Питання
False-consensus effect?
Відповідь
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
Картка 520
Питання
Industrial-organizational psychology?
Відповідь
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
Картка 521
Питання
Repression?
Відповідь
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
Картка 522
Питання
Burnout?
Відповідь
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
Картка 523
Питання
Unconditional positive regard?
Відповідь
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
Картка 524
Питання
Trait?
Відповідь
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
Картка 525
Питання
Regression as a defense mechanism?
Відповідь
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
Картка 526
Питання
Reciprocal determinism?
Відповідь
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
Картка 527
Питання
Self-efficacy?
Відповідь
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
Картка 528
Питання
Self-concept in humanistic theory?
Відповідь
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
Картка 529
Питання
Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
Відповідь
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
Картка 530
Питання
A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Відповідь
Openness.
Картка 531
Питання
Personality inventory?
Відповідь
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
Картка 532
Питання
Self-actualizing tendency?
Відповідь
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
Картка 533
Питання
Self-esteem?
Відповідь
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
Картка 534
Питання
Instinct in motivation research?
Відповідь
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
Картка 535
Питання
A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Відповідь
Conscientiousness.
Картка 536
Питання
Projective test?
Відповідь
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
Картка 537
Питання
How does factor analysis help trait research?
Відповідь
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
Картка 538
Питання
Drive-reduction theory?
Відповідь
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
Картка 539
Питання
A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Відповідь
Extraversion.
Картка 540
Питання
Person–situation debate?
Відповідь
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
Картка 541
Питання
A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
Відповідь
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
Картка 542
Питання
Homeostasis?
Відповідь
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
Картка 543
Питання
Incentive theory?
Відповідь
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
Картка 544
Питання
Big Five agreeableness?
Відповідь
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
Картка 545
Питання
A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
Відповідь
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
Картка 546
Питання
A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
Відповідь
An approach–approach conflict.
Картка 547
Питання
Arousal theory of motivation?
Відповідь
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
Картка 548
Питання
Big Five emotional stability?
Відповідь
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
Картка 549
Питання
What regulates hunger?
Відповідь
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
Картка 550
Питання
Three broad components of emotion?
Відповідь
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
Картка 551
Питання
Self-determination theory?
Відповідь
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
Картка 552
Питання
Emotion regulation?
Відповідь
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
Картка 553
Питання
Sensation-seeking?
Відповідь
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
Картка 554
Питання
Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
Відповідь
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
Картка 555
Питання
Intrinsic motivation?
Відповідь
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
Картка 556
Питання
Display rules?
Відповідь
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
Картка 557
Питання
Arousal and performance relationship?
Відповідь
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
Картка 558
Питання
A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
Відповідь
An approach–avoidance conflict.
Картка 559
Питання
Extrinsic motivation?
Відповідь
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
Картка 560
Питання
Achievement motivation?
Відповідь
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
Картка 561
Питання
Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
Відповідь
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
Картка 562
Питання
A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
Відповідь
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
Картка 563
Питання
Overjustification effect?
Відповідь
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
Картка 564
Питання
Belongingness motivation?
Відповідь
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
Картка 565
Питання
Study time changed after students chose their own topic:
Condition Mean minutes Assigned topic 34 Chosen topic 47 What is the observed mean difference?
Відповідь
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
Картка 566
Питання
Facial-feedback effect?
Відповідь
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
Картка 567
Питання
Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
Відповідь
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
Картка 568
Питання
A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
Відповідь
Cognitive reappraisal.
Картка 569
Питання
Broaden-and-build view?
Відповідь
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
Картка 570
Питання
Which emotions often appear across cultures?
Відповідь
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
Картка 571
Питання
How can the same arousal become different emotions?
Відповідь
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
Картка 572
Питання
Expressive suppression?
Відповідь
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
Картка 573
Питання
How does acute stress affect the body?
Відповідь
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
Картка 574
Питання
Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
Відповідь
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
Картка 575
Питання
In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
Відповідь
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
Картка 576
Питання
A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
Відповідь
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
Картка 577
Питання
Health psychology?
Відповідь
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
Картка 578
Питання
Positive psychology?
Відповідь
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
Картка 579
Питання
Stress?
Відповідь
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
Картка 580
Питання
A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
Відповідь
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
Картка 581
Питання
Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
Відповідь
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
Картка 582
Питання
Resilience?
Відповідь
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
Картка 583
Питання
Stressor?
Відповідь
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
Картка 584
Питання
General adaptation syndrome?
Відповідь
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
Картка 585
Питання
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
Відповідь
Problem-focused coping.
Картка 586
Питання
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
Відповідь
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
Картка 587
Питання
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
Відповідь
Primary appraisal.
Картка 588
Питання
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
Відповідь
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
Картка 589
Питання
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
Відповідь
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
Картка 590
Питання
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
Відповідь
Emotion-focused coping.
Картка 591
Питання
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
Відповідь
Secondary appraisal.
Картка 592
Питання
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
Відповідь
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
Картка 593
Питання
Adverse childhood experiences?
Відповідь
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
Картка 594
Питання
How can social support protect health?
Відповідь
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
Картка 595
Питання
Eustress versus distress?
Відповідь
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
Картка 596
Питання
Tend-and-befriend response?
Відповідь
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
Картка 597
Питання
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
Відповідь
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
Картка 598
Питання
Biofeedback?
Відповідь
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
Картка 599
Питання
How does perceived control affect stress?
Відповідь
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
Картка 600
Питання
Psychoneuroimmunology?
Відповідь
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
Картка 601
Питання
Subjective well-being?
Відповідь
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
Картка 602
Питання
Psychological disorder?
Відповідь
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
Картка 603
Питання
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
Відповідь
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
Картка 604
Питання
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
Відповідь
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
Картка 605
Питання
Signature strengths?
Відповідь
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
Картка 606
Питання
Biopsychosocial model?
Відповідь
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
Картка 607
Питання
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
Відповідь
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
Картка 608
Питання
Posttraumatic growth?
Відповідь
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
Картка 609
Питання
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
Відповідь
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
Картка 610
Питання
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
Відповідь
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
Картка 611
Питання
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
Відповідь
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
Картка 612
Питання
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
Відповідь
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
Картка 613
Питання
Biological explanation of disorder?
Відповідь
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
Картка 614
Питання
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
Відповідь
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
Картка 615
Питання
Purpose of the DSM?
Відповідь
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
Картка 616
Питання
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
Відповідь
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
Картка 617
Питання
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
Відповідь
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
Картка 618
Питання
Autism spectrum disorder?
Відповідь
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
Картка 619
Питання
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
Відповідь
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
Картка 620
Питання
Major depressive disorder?
Відповідь
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
Картка 621
Питання
Specific phobia?
Відповідь
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
Картка 622
Питання
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
Відповідь
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
Картка 623
Питання
Dissociative amnesia?
Відповідь
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
Картка 624
Питання
Bipolar I disorder?
Відповідь
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
Картка 625
Питання
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
Відповідь
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
Картка 626
Питання
Anorexia nervosa?
Відповідь
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
Картка 627
Питання
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
Відповідь
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
Картка 628
Питання
Bipolar II disorder?
Відповідь
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
Картка 629
Питання
Purpose of the ICD?
Відповідь
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
Картка 630
Питання
Bulimia nervosa?
Відповідь
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
Картка 631
Питання
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
Відповідь
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
Картка 632
Питання
Ataque de nervios?
Відповідь
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
Картка 633
Питання
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
Відповідь
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
Картка 634
Питання
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
Відповідь
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
Картка 635
Питання
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
Відповідь
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
Картка 636
Питання
Comorbidity?
Відповідь
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
Картка 637
Питання
Humanistic explanation of distress?
Відповідь
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
Картка 638
Питання
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
Відповідь
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
Картка 639
Питання
Stigma around mental disorder?
Відповідь
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
Картка 640
Питання
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
Відповідь
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
Картка 641
Питання
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
Відповідь
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
Картка 642
Питання
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
Відповідь
Interrater reliability.
Картка 643
Питання
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
Відповідь
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
Картка 644
Питання
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
Відповідь
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
Картка 645
Питання
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
Відповідь
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
Картка 646
Питання
Delusion?
Відповідь
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
Картка 647
Питання
Agoraphobia?
Відповідь
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
Картка 648
Питання
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
Відповідь
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
Картка 649
Питання
Eclectic approach to disorder?
Відповідь
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
Картка 650
Питання
Hallucination?
Відповідь
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
Картка 651
Питання
Panic disorder?
Відповідь
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
Картка 652
Питання
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
Відповідь
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
Картка 653
Питання
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
Відповідь
The diathesis–stress model.
Картка 654
Питання
Cluster A personality disorders?
Відповідь
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
Картка 655
Питання
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
Відповідь
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
Картка 656
Питання
Evidence-based treatment?
Відповідь
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
Картка 657
Питання
Therapeutic alliance?
Відповідь
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
Картка 658
Питання
Cultural humility in therapy?
Відповідь
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
Картка 659
Питання
Deinstitutionalization?
Відповідь
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
Картка 660
Питання
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
Відповідь
Exposure therapy.
Картка 661
Питання
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
Відповідь
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
Картка 662
Питання
Four medication categories in the course?
Відповідь
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
Картка 663
Питання
Depressive cognitive triad?
Відповідь
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
Картка 664
Питання
Applied behavior analysis?
Відповідь
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
Картка 665
Питання
Psychosurgery?
Відповідь
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
Картка 666
Питання
Free association?
Відповідь
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
Картка 667
Питання
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
Відповідь
Cognitive restructuring.
Картка 668
Питання
One advantage of group therapy?
Відповідь
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
Картка 669
Питання
Lobotomy?
Відповідь
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
Картка 670
Питання
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
Відповідь
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
Картка 671
Питання
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
Відповідь
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
Картка 672
Питання
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
Відповідь
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
Картка 673
Питання
Social anxiety disorder?
Відповідь
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
Картка 674
Питання
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
Відповідь
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
Картка 675
Питання
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
Відповідь
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
Картка 676
Питання
Dissociative fugue?
Відповідь
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
Картка 677
Питання
Cluster B personality disorders?
Відповідь
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
Картка 678
Питання
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
Відповідь
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
Картка 679
Питання
Catatonia?
Відповідь
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
Картка 680
Питання
Manic episode?
Відповідь
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
Картка 681
Питання
Dissociative identity disorder?
Відповідь
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
Картка 682
Питання
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
Відповідь
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
Картка 683
Питання
Cluster C personality disorders?
Відповідь
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
Картка 684
Питання
Taijin kyofusho?
Відповідь
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
Картка 685
Питання
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
Відповідь
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
Картка 686
Питання
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
Відповідь
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
Картка 687
Питання
Hypomanic episode?
Відповідь
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
Картка 688
Питання
Generalized anxiety disorder?
Відповідь
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
Картка 689
Питання
Hoarding disorder?
Відповідь
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
Картка 690
Питання
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
Відповідь
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
Картка 691
Питання
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
Відповідь
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
Картка 692
Питання
Persistent depressive disorder?
Відповідь
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
Картка 693
Питання
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
Відповідь
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
Картка 694
Питання
Systematic desensitization?
Відповідь
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
Картка 695
Питання
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
Відповідь
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
Картка 696
Питання
Dialectical behavior therapy?
Відповідь
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
Картка 697
Питання
Integrity in therapy ethics?
Відповідь
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
Картка 698
Питання
Aversion therapy?
Відповідь
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
Картка 699
Питання
Tardive dyskinesia?
Відповідь
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
Картка 700
Питання
ECT versus TMS?
Відповідь
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
Картка 701
Питання
Respect for rights and dignity?
Відповідь
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
Картка 702
Питання
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
Відповідь
A token economy.
Картка 703
Питання
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
Відповідь
Person-centered therapy.
Картка 704
Питання
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
Відповідь
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
Картка 705
Питання
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
Відповідь
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.
705 карток
AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
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