Nature in the nature–nurture question?

Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.

Central nervous system?

The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.

Main role of the spinal cord?

It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.

Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?

7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.

Nurture in the nature–nurture question?

Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.

Peripheral nervous system?

The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.

A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.

Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?

210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.

The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.

Autonomic nervous system?

The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.

Evolutionary perspective on behavior?

It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.

Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?

It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.

Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?

They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.

Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?

A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.

Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.

Somatic nervous system?

The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.

They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.

Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?

An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.

Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?

Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.

Sympathetic nervous system?

The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.

Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?

The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.

They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?

The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.

Parasympathetic nervous system?

The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.

The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.

Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.

Adrenaline's behavioral role?

It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.

Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.

The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.

The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.

Leptin's role in eating?

It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.

Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.

Depolarization during an action potential?

Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.

Dopamine's major psychological functions?

Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.

A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.

A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.

The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.

Serotonin's major psychological functions?

Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.

Glutamate's major psychological functions?

It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.

A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.

It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.

A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.

Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.

A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.

All-or-none principle?

A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.

Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?

Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.

GABA's major psychological function?

It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.

Oxytocin's behavioral role?

It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.

A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.

AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review

Review all five AP® Psychology units with 705 independently written cards covering concepts, scenarios, research methods, data interpretation, and evidence-based reasoning.

نوشتهٔ Open Study Contributor

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جزئیات دسته

کارت‌ها: ۷۰۵ کارت
نسخه: ۳
منتشرشده: ۳ شهریور ۱۴۰۵
آخرین به‌روزرسانی: ۱۹ شهریور ۱۴۰۵
مجوز: Common knowledge · CC0 1.0
زبان‌های مخاطب: en
موضوع: Psychology
سطح: AP Psychology
برچسب‌ها: psychology-course-review, psychology-course-review-u1, psychology-course-review-u2, psychology-course-review-u3, psychology-course-review-u4, psychology-course-review-u5

دسته‌های مشابه

دربارهٔ این دسته

Review all five units in the AP® Psychology course framework with 705 independently written English flashcards. The deck covers Biological Bases of Behavior, Cognition, Development and Learning, Social Psychology and Personality, and Mental and Physical Health. It supports all four science practices: Concept Application, Research Methods and Design, Data Interpretation, and Argumentation.

What the cards ask you to retrieve

Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.

The order follows Units 1–5, keeps related material within the current or next topic, and introduces prerequisites and chronological steps first. Definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are separated by at least three unrelated cards. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences remain adjacent only when that progression helps learning.

What's deliberately left out

The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or use long essay prompts. It also leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.

Check the official AP Psychology course page for authoritative requirements. Psychological facts and the course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, ordering, and inherited generated cover, to the extent those rights exist.

This is an independent, unofficial study aid. It isn't affiliated with, endorsed by, sponsored by, or official material from College Board or the AP Program. AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this product. No College Board examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or trade dress were copied or adapted.

کارت‌های این دسته

کارت ۱
پرسش
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
پاسخ
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
کارت ۲
پرسش
Central nervous system?
پاسخ
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
کارت ۳
پرسش
Main role of the spinal cord?
پاسخ
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
کارت ۴
پرسش
Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?
پاسخ
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
کارت ۵
پرسش
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
پاسخ
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
کارت ۶
پرسش
Peripheral nervous system?
پاسخ
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
کارت ۷
پرسش
Reflex arc?
پاسخ
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
کارت ۸
پرسش
Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?
پاسخ
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
کارت ۹
پرسش
Heritability?
پاسخ
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
کارت ۱۰
پرسش
Autonomic nervous system?
پاسخ
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
کارت ۱۱
پرسش
Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
پاسخ
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
کارت ۱۲
پرسش
Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
پاسخ
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
کارت ۱۳
پرسش
Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
پاسخ
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
کارت ۱۴
پرسش
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
پاسخ
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
کارت ۱۵
پرسش
Natural selection?
پاسخ
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
کارت ۱۶
پرسش
Somatic nervous system?
پاسخ
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
کارت ۱۷
پرسش
Sensory neurons?
پاسخ
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
کارت ۱۸
پرسش
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
پاسخ
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
کارت ۱۹
پرسش
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
پاسخ
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
کارت ۲۰
پرسش
Sympathetic nervous system?
پاسخ
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
کارت ۲۱
پرسش
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
پاسخ
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
کارت ۲۲
پرسش
Motor neurons?
پاسخ
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
کارت ۲۳
پرسش
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
پاسخ
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
کارت ۲۴
پرسش
Parasympathetic nervous system?
پاسخ
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
کارت ۲۵
پرسش
Resting potential?
پاسخ
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
کارت ۲۶
پرسش
Interneurons?
پاسخ
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
کارت ۲۷
پرسش
Adrenaline's behavioral role?
پاسخ
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
کارت ۲۸
پرسش
Frontal lobes?
پاسخ
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
کارت ۲۹
پرسش
Neural threshold?
پاسخ
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
کارت ۳۰
پرسش
Corpus callosum?
پاسخ
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
کارت ۳۱
پرسش
Leptin's role in eating?
پاسخ
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
کارت ۳۲
پرسش
Temporal lobes?
پاسخ
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
کارت ۳۳
پرسش
Depolarization during an action potential?
پاسخ
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
کارت ۳۴
پرسش
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
پاسخ
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
کارت ۳۵
پرسش
Ghrelin's role in eating?
پاسخ
It helps stimulate hunger.
کارت ۳۶
پرسش
Drug agonist?
پاسخ
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
کارت ۳۷
پرسش
Action potential?
پاسخ
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
کارت ۳۸
پرسش
Reuptake?
پاسخ
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
کارت ۳۹
پرسش
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
پاسخ
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
کارت ۴۰
پرسش
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
پاسخ
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
کارت ۴۱
پرسش
Refractory period?
پاسخ
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
کارت ۴۲
پرسش
Melatonin's role?
پاسخ
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
کارت ۴۳
پرسش
Drug antagonist?
پاسخ
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
کارت ۴۴
پرسش
Stimulants?
پاسخ
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
کارت ۴۵
پرسش
Drug tolerance?
پاسخ
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
کارت ۴۶
پرسش
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
پاسخ
Multiple sclerosis.
کارت ۴۷
پرسش
All-or-none principle?
پاسخ
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
کارت ۴۸
پرسش
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
پاسخ
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
کارت ۴۹
پرسش
GABA's major psychological function?
پاسخ
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
کارت ۵۰
پرسش
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
پاسخ
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
کارت ۵۱
پرسش
Reuptake inhibitor?
پاسخ
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
کارت ۵۲
پرسش
Depressants?
پاسخ
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
کارت ۵۳
پرسش
Drug withdrawal?
پاسخ
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
کارت ۵۴
پرسش
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
پاسخ
Myasthenia gravis.
کارت ۵۵
پرسش
Glial cells?
پاسخ
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
کارت ۵۶
پرسش
Endorphins?
پاسخ
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
کارت ۵۷
پرسش
Substance P?
پاسخ
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
کارت ۵۸
پرسش
Acetylcholine's major functions?
پاسخ
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
کارت ۵۹
پرسش
Opioids?
پاسخ
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
کارت ۶۰
پرسش
Hallucinogens?
پاسخ
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
کارت ۶۱
پرسش
Addiction?
پاسخ
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
کارت ۶۲
پرسش
Parietal lobes?
پاسخ
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
کارت ۶۳
پرسش
Consciousness?
پاسخ
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
کارت ۶۴
پرسش
Circadian rhythm?
پاسخ
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
کارت ۶۵
پرسش
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
پاسخ
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
کارت ۶۶
پرسش
Occipital lobes?
پاسخ
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
کارت ۶۷
پرسش
What does split-brain research reveal?
پاسخ
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
کارت ۶۸
پرسش
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
پاسخ
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
کارت ۶۹
پرسش
NREM-1 sleep?
پاسخ
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
کارت ۷۰
پرسش
Motor cortex?
پاسخ
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
کارت ۷۱
پرسش
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
پاسخ
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
کارت ۷۲
پرسش
Brainstem's core function?
پاسخ
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
کارت ۷۳
پرسش
NREM-2 sleep?
پاسخ
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
کارت ۷۴
پرسش
Somatosensory cortex?
پاسخ
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
کارت ۷۵
پرسش
Medulla's main functions?
پاسخ
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
کارت ۷۶
پرسش
Reticular activating system?
پاسخ
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
کارت ۷۷
پرسش
NREM-3 sleep?
پاسخ
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
کارت ۷۸
پرسش
Cerebellum's main functions?
پاسخ
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
کارت ۷۹
پرسش
Thalamus?
پاسخ
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
کارت ۸۰
پرسش
Hypothalamus?
پاسخ
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
کارت ۸۱
پرسش
REM sleep?
پاسخ
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
کارت ۸۲
پرسش
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
پاسخ
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
کارت ۸۳
پرسش
Amygdala?
پاسخ
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
کارت ۸۴
پرسش
Hippocampus?
پاسخ
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
کارت ۸۵
پرسش
How does sleep change across a typical night?
پاسخ
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
کارت ۸۶
پرسش
Contralateral brain control?
پاسخ
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
کارت ۸۷
پرسش
What does an EEG measure?
پاسخ
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
کارت ۸۸
پرسش
Reward-center activity?
پاسخ
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
کارت ۸۹
پرسش
Neuroplasticity?
پاسخ
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
کارت ۹۰
پرسش
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
پاسخ
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
کارت ۹۱
پرسش
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
پاسخ
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
کارت ۹۲
پرسش
Insomnia?
پاسخ
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
کارت ۹۳
پرسش
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
پاسخ
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
کارت ۹۴
پرسش
Absolute threshold?
پاسخ
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
کارت ۹۵
پرسش
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
پاسخ
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
کارت ۹۶
پرسش
Narcolepsy?
پاسخ
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
کارت ۹۷
پرسش
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
پاسخ
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
کارت ۹۸
پرسش
Difference threshold?
پاسخ
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
کارت ۹۹
پرسش
Consolidation view of dreams?
پاسخ
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
کارت ۱۰۰
پرسش
REM sleep behavior disorder?
پاسخ
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
کارت ۱۰۱
پرسش
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
پاسخ
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
کارت ۱۰۲
پرسش
Weber's law?
پاسخ
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
کارت ۱۰۳
پرسش
Two supported functions of sleep?
پاسخ
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
کارت ۱۰۴
پرسش
Sleep apnea?
پاسخ
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
کارت ۱۰۵
پرسش
REM rebound?
پاسخ
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
کارت ۱۰۶
پرسش
Signal detection theory?
پاسخ
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
کارت ۱۰۷
پرسش
Sensory transduction?
پاسخ
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
کارت ۱۰۸
پرسش
Vestibular sense?
پاسخ
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
کارت ۱۰۹
پرسش
Somnambulism?
پاسخ
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
کارت ۱۱۰
پرسش
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
پاسخ
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
کارت ۱۱۱
پرسش
What begins visual transduction?
پاسخ
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
کارت ۱۱۲
پرسش
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
پاسخ
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
کارت ۱۱۳
پرسش
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
پاسخ
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
کارت ۱۱۴
پرسش
Accommodation in vision?
پاسخ
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
کارت ۱۱۵
پرسش
Cones?
پاسخ
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
کارت ۱۱۶
پرسش
What begins auditory transduction?
پاسخ
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
کارت ۱۱۷
پرسش
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
پاسخ
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
کارت ۱۱۸
پرسش
How is smell unusual among the senses?
پاسخ
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
کارت ۱۱۹
پرسش
Kinesthesia?
پاسخ
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
کارت ۱۲۰
پرسش
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
پاسخ
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
کارت ۱۲۱
پرسش
Nearsightedness?
پاسخ
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
کارت ۱۲۲
پرسش
Pheromones?
پاسخ
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
کارت ۱۲۳
پرسش
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
پاسخ
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
کارت ۱۲۴
پرسش
Volley theory of pitch?
پاسخ
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
کارت ۱۲۵
پرسش
Farsightedness?
پاسخ
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
کارت ۱۲۶
پرسش
Six taste qualities named in the course?
پاسخ
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
کارت ۱۲۷
پرسش
Phantom-limb sensation?
پاسخ
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
کارت ۱۲۸
پرسش
Sensory interaction?
پاسخ
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
کارت ۱۲۹
پرسش
What causes most color-vision deficiency?
پاسخ
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
کارت ۱۳۰
پرسش
Prosopagnosia?
پاسخ
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
کارت ۱۳۱
پرسش
Rods?
پاسخ
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
کارت ۱۳۲
پرسش
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
پاسخ
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
کارت ۱۳۳
پرسش
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
پاسخ
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
کارت ۱۳۴
پرسش
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
پاسخ
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
کارت ۱۳۵
پرسش
What do the semicircular canals detect?
پاسخ
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
کارت ۱۳۶
پرسش
Synesthesia?
پاسخ
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
کارت ۱۳۷
پرسش
Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
پاسخ
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
کارت ۱۳۸
پرسش
Blindsight?
پاسخ
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
کارت ۱۳۹
پرسش
Sensory adaptation?
پاسخ
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
کارت ۱۴۰
پرسش
Gate-control view of pain?
پاسخ
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
کارت ۱۴۱
پرسش
Bottom-up processing?
پاسخ
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
کارت ۱۴۲
پرسش
Concept?
پاسخ
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
کارت ۱۴۳
پرسش
Fixation in problem solving?
پاسخ
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
کارت ۱۴۴
پرسش
Algorithm?
پاسخ
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
کارت ۱۴۵
پرسش
Top-down processing?
پاسخ
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
کارت ۱۴۶
پرسش
Confirmation bias?
پاسخ
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
کارت ۱۴۷
پرسش
Retinal disparity?
پاسخ
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
کارت ۱۴۸
پرسش
Heuristic?
پاسخ
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
کارت ۱۴۹
پرسش
Selective attention?
پاسخ
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
کارت ۱۵۰
پرسش
Figure–ground organization?
پاسخ
Separating the object of attention from its background.
کارت ۱۵۱
پرسش
Convergence as a depth cue?
پاسخ
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
کارت ۱۵۲
پرسش
Representativeness heuristic?
پاسخ
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
کارت ۱۵۳
پرسش
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
پاسخ
Inattentional blindness.
کارت ۱۵۴
پرسش
Gestalt proximity principle?
پاسخ
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
کارت ۱۵۵
پرسش
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
پاسخ
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
کارت ۱۵۶
پرسش
Cocktail-party effect?
پاسخ
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
کارت ۱۵۷
پرسش
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
پاسخ
Change blindness.
کارت ۱۵۸
پرسش
Gestalt similarity principle?
پاسخ
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
کارت ۱۵۹
پرسش
Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
پاسخ
Linear perspective.
کارت ۱۶۰
پرسش
Perceptual constancy?
پاسخ
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
کارت ۱۶۱
پرسش
Perceptual set?
پاسخ
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
کارت ۱۶۲
پرسش
Gestalt closure principle?
پاسخ
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
کارت ۱۶۳
پرسش
One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
پاسخ
The blocking object, using interposition.
کارت ۱۶۴
پرسش
Apparent motion?
پاسخ
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
کارت ۱۶۵
پرسش
Availability heuristic?
پاسخ
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
کارت ۱۶۶
پرسش
Divergent thinking?
پاسخ
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
کارت ۱۶۷
پرسش
A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
پاسخ
Relative clarity.
کارت ۱۶۸
پرسش
Prototype?
پاسخ
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
کارت ۱۶۹
پرسش
Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
پاسخ
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
کارت ۱۷۰
پرسش
Convergent thinking?
پاسخ
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
کارت ۱۷۱
پرسش
A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
پاسخ
Texture gradient.
کارت ۱۷۲
پرسش
Belief perseverance?
پاسخ
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
کارت ۱۷۳
پرسش
Explicit memory?
پاسخ
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
کارت ۱۷۴
پرسش
Three stores in the multi-store model?
پاسخ
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
کارت ۱۷۵
پرسش
Seeing an object only in its usual role?
پاسخ
Functional fixedness.
کارت ۱۷۶
پرسش
Mental set?
پاسخ
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
کارت ۱۷۷
پرسش
Episodic memory?
پاسخ
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
کارت ۱۷۸
پرسش
Working memory?
پاسخ
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
کارت ۱۷۹
پرسش
Insight?
پاسخ
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
کارت ۱۸۰
پرسش
Framing effect?
پاسخ
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
کارت ۱۸۱
پرسش
Implicit memory?
پاسخ
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
کارت ۱۸۲
پرسش
Overconfidence bias?
پاسخ
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
کارت ۱۸۳
پرسش
Anchoring bias?
پاسخ
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
کارت ۱۸۴
پرسش
Schema in thinking?
پاسخ
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
کارت ۱۸۵
پرسش
Procedural memory?
پاسخ
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
کارت ۱۸۶
پرسش
Gambler's fallacy?
پاسخ
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
کارت ۱۸۷
پرسش
Sunk-cost fallacy?
پاسخ
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
کارت ۱۸۸
پرسش
Executive functions?
پاسخ
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
کارت ۱۸۹
پرسش
How can priming affect judgment?
پاسخ
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
کارت ۱۹۰
پرسش
Central executive in working memory?
پاسخ
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
کارت ۱۹۱
پرسش
Serial-position effect?
پاسخ
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
کارت ۱۹۲
پرسش
Semantic memory?
پاسخ
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
کارت ۱۹۳
پرسش
Levels-of-processing principle?
پاسخ
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
کارت ۱۹۴
پرسش
Automatic processing?
پاسخ
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
کارت ۱۹۵
پرسش
Maintenance rehearsal?
پاسخ
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
کارت ۱۹۶
پرسش
Prospective memory?
پاسخ
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
کارت ۱۹۷
پرسش
Primacy effect?
پاسخ
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
کارت ۱۹۸
پرسش
Long-term memory?
پاسخ
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
کارت ۱۹۹
پرسش
Highly superior autobiographical memory?
پاسخ
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
کارت ۲۰۰
پرسش
Effortful processing?
پاسخ
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
کارت ۲۰۱
پرسش
Elaborative rehearsal?
پاسخ
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
کارت ۲۰۲
پرسش
Memory consolidation?
پاسخ
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
کارت ۲۰۳
پرسش
Recency effect?
پاسخ
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
کارت ۲۰۴
پرسش
Spacing effect?
پاسخ
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
کارت ۲۰۵
پرسش
Testing effect?
پاسخ
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
کارت ۲۰۶
پرسش
Chunking?
پاسخ
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
کارت ۲۰۷
پرسش
Mnemonic?
پاسخ
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
کارت ۲۰۸
پرسش
Why organize material into a hierarchy?
پاسخ
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
کارت ۲۰۹
پرسش
How can a schema help encoding?
پاسخ
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
کارت ۲۱۰
پرسش
Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
پاسخ
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
کارت ۲۱۱
پرسش
Iconic memory?
پاسخ
A very brief visual sensory memory.
کارت ۲۱۲
پرسش
Recall?
پاسخ
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
کارت ۲۱۳
پرسش
Retrieval cue?
پاسخ
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
کارت ۲۱۴
پرسش
Encoding-specificity principle?
پاسخ
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
کارت ۲۱۵
پرسش
Context-dependent memory?
پاسخ
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
کارت ۲۱۶
پرسش
Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
پاسخ
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
کارت ۲۱۷
پرسش
Echoic memory?
پاسخ
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
کارت ۲۱۸
پرسش
Anterograde amnesia?
پاسخ
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
کارت ۲۱۹
پرسش
Phonological loop?
پاسخ
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
کارت ۲۲۰
پرسش
Cerebellum's memory role?
پاسخ
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
کارت ۲۲۱
پرسش
Why is short-term memory described as limited?
پاسخ
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
کارت ۲۲۲
پرسش
Retrograde amnesia?
پاسخ
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
کارت ۲۲۳
پرسش
Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
پاسخ
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
کارت ۲۲۴
پرسش
How can the amygdala affect memory?
پاسخ
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
کارت ۲۲۵
پرسش
Visuospatial sketchpad?
پاسخ
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
کارت ۲۲۶
پرسش
Long-term potentiation?
پاسخ
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
کارت ۲۲۷
پرسش
Infantile amnesia?
پاسخ
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
کارت ۲۲۸
پرسش
Alzheimer's disease?
پاسخ
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
کارت ۲۲۹
پرسش
Scores are 2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?
پاسخ
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because 9 - 2 = 7.
کارت ۲۳۰
پرسش
Recognition?
پاسخ
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
کارت ۲۳۱
پرسش
Why is memory called reconstructive?
پاسخ
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
کارت ۲۳۲
پرسش
Storage decay?
پاسخ
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
کارت ۲۳۳
پرسش
State-dependent memory?
پاسخ
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
کارت ۲۳۴
پرسش
Relearning?
پاسخ
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
کارت ۲۳۵
پرسش
Misinformation effect?
پاسخ
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
کارت ۲۳۶
پرسش
A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
پاسخ
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
کارت ۲۳۷
پرسش
Mood-congruent memory?
پاسخ
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
کارت ۲۳۸
پرسش
Priming?
پاسخ
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
کارت ۲۳۹
پرسش
Tip-of-the-tongue state?
پاسخ
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
کارت ۲۴۰
پرسش
Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
پاسخ
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
کارت ۲۴۱
پرسش
Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
پاسخ
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
کارت ۲۴۲
پرسش
Metacognition?
پاسخ
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
کارت ۲۴۳
پرسش
Source amnesia?
پاسخ
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
کارت ۲۴۴
پرسش
Test standardization?
پاسخ
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
کارت ۲۴۵
پرسش
Reliability?
پاسخ
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
کارت ۲۴۶
پرسش
Stereotype threat?
پاسخ
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
کارت ۲۴۷
پرسش
General intelligence, or g?
پاسخ
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
کارت ۲۴۸
پرسش
Encoding failure?
پاسخ
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
کارت ۲۴۹
پرسش
Validity?
پاسخ
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
کارت ۲۵۰
پرسش
Proactive interference?
پاسخ
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
کارت ۲۵۱
پرسش
Imagination inflation?
پاسخ
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
کارت ۲۵۲
پرسش
A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
پاسخ
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
کارت ۲۵۳
پرسش
Retrieval failure?
پاسخ
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
کارت ۲۵۴
پرسش
Retroactive interference?
پاسخ
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
کارت ۲۵۵
پرسش
A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
پاسخ
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
کارت ۲۵۶
پرسش
Repression in psychodynamic theory?
پاسخ
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
کارت ۲۵۷
پرسش
Flashbulb memory?
پاسخ
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
کارت ۲۵۸
پرسش
A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
پاسخ
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
کارت ۲۵۹
پرسش
A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
پاسخ
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
کارت ۲۶۰
پرسش
Stereotype lift?
پاسخ
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
کارت ۲۶۱
پرسش
Achievement test?
پاسخ
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
کارت ۲۶۲
پرسش
Construct validity?
پاسخ
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
کارت ۲۶۳
پرسش
Test–retest reliability?
پاسخ
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
کارت ۲۶۴
پرسش
Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
پاسخ
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
کارت ۲۶۵
پرسش
Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
پاسخ
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
کارت ۲۶۶
پرسش
Aptitude test?
پاسخ
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
کارت ۲۶۷
پرسش
Traditional IQ formula?
پاسخ
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
کارت ۲۶۸
پرسش
Predictive validity?
پاسخ
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
کارت ۲۶۹
پرسش
What does a normal score distribution look like?
پاسخ
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
کارت ۲۷۰
پرسش
Split-half reliability?
پاسخ
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
کارت ۲۷۱
پرسش
Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
پاسخ
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
کارت ۲۷۲
پرسش
Flynn effect?
پاسخ
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
کارت ۲۷۳
پرسش
A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
پاسخ
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
کارت ۲۷۴
پرسش
Continuous versus stage development?
پاسخ
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
کارت ۲۷۵
پرسش
How can prenatal environment affect later development?
پاسخ
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
کارت ۲۷۶
پرسش
Teratogen?
پاسخ
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
کارت ۲۷۷
پرسش
Maturation?
پاسخ
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
کارت ۲۷۸
پرسش
Stability–change question in development?
پاسخ
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
کارت ۲۷۹
پرسش
A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
پاسخ
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
کارت ۲۸۰
پرسش
Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
پاسخ
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
کارت ۲۸۱
پرسش
Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
پاسخ
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
کارت ۲۸۲
پرسش
Fine versus gross motor skills?
پاسخ
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
کارت ۲۸۳
پرسش
Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
پاسخ
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
کارت ۲۸۴
پرسش
What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
پاسخ
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
کارت ۲۸۵
پرسش
Puberty?
پاسخ
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
کارت ۲۸۶
پرسش
Sensitive period?
پاسخ
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
کارت ۲۸۷
پرسش
What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
پاسخ
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
کارت ۲۸۸
پرسش
Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
پاسخ
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
کارت ۲۸۹
پرسش
Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
پاسخ
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
کارت ۲۹۰
پرسش
Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
پاسخ
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
کارت ۲۹۱
پرسش
Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
پاسخ
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
کارت ۲۹۲
پرسش
Menarche?
پاسخ
The first menstrual period.
کارت ۲۹۳
پرسش
Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
پاسخ
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
کارت ۲۹۴
پرسش
About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
پاسخ
About 68%.
کارت ۲۹۵
پرسش
A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
پاسخ
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
کارت ۲۹۶
پرسش
Spermarche?
پاسخ
The first ejaculation.
کارت ۲۹۷
پرسش
Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
پاسخ
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
کارت ۲۹۸
پرسش
Imprinting?
پاسخ
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
کارت ۲۹۹
پرسش
Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
پاسخ
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
کارت ۳۰۰
پرسش
Menopause?
پاسخ
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
کارت ۳۰۱
پرسش
Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
پاسخ
Naturalistic observation.
کارت ۳۰۲
پرسش
How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
پاسخ
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
کارت ۳۰۳
پرسش
Gender identity?
پاسخ
A person's internal sense of their gender.
کارت ۳۰۴
پرسش
Gender role?
پاسخ
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
کارت ۳۰۵
پرسش
Sex versus gender?
پاسخ
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
کارت ۳۰۶
پرسش
Common sensory change in later adulthood?
پاسخ
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
کارت ۳۰۷
پرسش
Sexual orientation?
پاسخ
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
کارت ۳۰۸
پرسش
Gender schema?
پاسخ
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
کارت ۳۰۹
پرسش
Best broad view of gender development?
پاسخ
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
کارت ۳۱۰
پرسش
Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
پاسخ
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
کارت ۳۱۱
پرسش
Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
پاسخ
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
کارت ۳۱۲
پرسش
Schema in cognitive development?
پاسخ
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
کارت ۳۱۳
پرسش
Sensorimotor stage?
پاسخ
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
کارت ۳۱۴
پرسش
Preoperational stage?
پاسخ
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
کارت ۳۱۵
پرسش
Assimilation?
پاسخ
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
کارت ۳۱۶
پرسش
A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
پاسخ
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
کارت ۳۱۷
پرسش
Animism in preoperational thought?
پاسخ
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
کارت ۳۱۸
پرسش
Concrete operational stage?
پاسخ
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
کارت ۳۱۹
پرسش
Accommodation?
پاسخ
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
کارت ۳۲۰
پرسش
Reversibility in cognitive development?
پاسخ
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
کارت ۳۲۱
پرسش
How can social learning shape gender expression?
پاسخ
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
کارت ۳۲۲
پرسش
A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
پاسخ
Assimilation.
کارت ۳۲۳
پرسش
Language?
پاسخ
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
کارت ۳۲۴
پرسش
Cooing stage?
پاسخ
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
کارت ۳۲۵
پرسش
Babbling stage?
پاسخ
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
کارت ۳۲۶
پرسش
One-word stage?
پاسخ
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
کارت ۳۲۷
پرسش
Grammar?
پاسخ
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
کارت ۳۲۸
پرسش
A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
پاسخ
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
کارت ۳۲۹
پرسش
Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
پاسخ
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
کارت ۳۳۰
پرسش
A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
پاسخ
Accommodation.
کارت ۳۳۱
پرسش
A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
پاسخ
Scaffolding.
کارت ۳۳۲
پرسش
A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
پاسخ
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
کارت ۳۳۳
پرسش
Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
پاسخ
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
کارت ۳۳۴
پرسش
An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
پاسخ
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
کارت ۳۳۵
پرسش
Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
پاسخ
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
کارت ۳۳۶
پرسش
Formal operational stage?
پاسخ
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
کارت ۳۳۷
پرسش
Dementia?
پاسخ
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
کارت ۳۳۸
پرسش
Phoneme?
پاسخ
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
کارت ۳۳۹
پرسش
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
پاسخ
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
کارت ۳۴۰
پرسش
Temperament?
پاسخ
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
کارت ۳۴۱
پرسش
Attachment?
پاسخ
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
کارت ۳۴۲
پرسش
Erikson's infancy conflict?
پاسخ
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
کارت ۳۴۳
پرسش
Microsystem?
پاسخ
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
کارت ۳۴۴
پرسش
Erikson's toddler conflict?
پاسخ
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
کارت ۳۴۵
پرسش
Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
پاسخ
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
کارت ۳۴۶
پرسش
Erikson's school-age conflict?
پاسخ
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
کارت ۳۴۷
پرسش
Mesosystem?
پاسخ
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
کارت ۳۴۸
پرسش
Erikson's adolescent conflict?
پاسخ
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
کارت ۳۴۹
پرسش
Erikson's young-adult conflict?
پاسخ
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
کارت ۳۵۰
پرسش
Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
پاسخ
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
کارت ۳۵۱
پرسش
Exosystem?
پاسخ
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
کارت ۳۵۲
پرسش
Morpheme?
پاسخ
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
کارت ۳۵۳
پرسش
Telegraphic speech?
پاسخ
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
۷۰۵ کارت
AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
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کارت ۳۵۴
پرسش
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
پاسخ
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
کارت ۳۵۵
پرسش
Macrosystem?
پاسخ
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
کارت ۳۵۶
پرسش
Semantics?
پاسخ
The meanings of words and sentences.
کارت ۳۵۷
پرسش
A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
پاسخ
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
کارت ۳۵۸
پرسش
What does a sensitive period for language imply?
پاسخ
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
کارت ۳۵۹
پرسش
Does language completely determine thought?
پاسخ
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
کارت ۳۶۰
پرسش
Syntax?
پاسخ
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
کارت ۳۶۱
پرسش
A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
پاسخ
Secure attachment.
کارت ۳۶۲
پرسش
How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
پاسخ
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
کارت ۳۶۳
پرسش
Authoritative parenting?
پاسخ
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
کارت ۳۶۴
پرسش
Identity achievement?
پاسخ
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
کارت ۳۶۵
پرسش
Avoidant attachment pattern?
پاسخ
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
کارت ۳۶۶
پرسش
Classical conditioning?
پاسخ
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
کارت ۳۶۷
پرسش
Unconditioned stimulus?
پاسخ
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
کارت ۳۶۸
پرسش
Unconditioned response?
پاسخ
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
کارت ۳۶۹
پرسش
Conditioned stimulus?
پاسخ
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
کارت ۳۷۰
پرسش
Conditioned response?
پاسخ
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
کارت ۳۷۱
پرسش
Acquisition in classical conditioning?
پاسخ
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
کارت ۳۷۲
پرسش
During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
پاسخ
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
کارت ۳۷۳
پرسش
Authoritarian parenting?
پاسخ
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
کارت ۳۷۴
پرسش
Identity diffusion?
پاسخ
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
کارت ۳۷۵
پرسش
Extinction in classical conditioning?
پاسخ
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
کارت ۳۷۶
پرسش
Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
پاسخ
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
کارت ۳۷۷
پرسش
Permissive parenting?
پاسخ
High warmth with few demands or limits.
کارت ۳۷۸
پرسش
Parallel play?
پاسخ
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
کارت ۳۷۹
پرسش
Imaginary audience?
پاسخ
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
کارت ۳۸۰
پرسش
Identity foreclosure?
پاسخ
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
کارت ۳۸۱
پرسش
Disorganized attachment pattern?
پاسخ
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
کارت ۳۸۲
پرسش
Neglectful parenting?
پاسخ
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
کارت ۳۸۳
پرسش
Chronosystem?
پاسخ
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
کارت ۳۸۴
پرسش
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
پاسخ
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
کارت ۳۸۵
پرسش
Personal fable?
پاسخ
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
کارت ۳۸۶
پرسش
Identity moratorium?
پاسخ
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
کارت ۳۸۷
پرسش
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
پاسخ
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
کارت ۳۸۸
پرسش
Separation anxiety in infancy?
پاسخ
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
کارت ۳۸۹
پرسش
What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
پاسخ
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
کارت ۳۹۰
پرسش
Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
پاسخ
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
کارت ۳۹۱
پرسش
Emerging adulthood?
پاسخ
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
کارت ۳۹۲
پرسش
Social clock?
پاسخ
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
کارت ۳۹۳
پرسش
Erikson's later-adult conflict?
پاسخ
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
کارت ۳۹۴
پرسش
Possible selves?
پاسخ
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
کارت ۳۹۵
پرسش
Stimulus generalization?
پاسخ
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
کارت ۳۹۶
پرسش
Operant conditioning?
پاسخ
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
کارت ۳۹۷
پرسش
Law of effect?
پاسخ
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
کارت ۳۹۸
پرسش
Spontaneous recovery?
پاسخ
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
کارت ۳۹۹
پرسش
Stimulus discrimination?
پاسخ
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
کارت ۴۰۰
پرسش
Reinforcement?
پاسخ
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
کارت ۴۰۱
پرسش
Higher-order conditioning?
پاسخ
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
کارت ۴۰۲
پرسش
Counterconditioning?
پاسخ
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
کارت ۴۰۳
پرسش
Habituation?
پاسخ
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
کارت ۴۰۴
پرسش
Punishment?
پاسخ
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
کارت ۴۰۵
پرسش
Partial reinforcement?
پاسخ
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
کارت ۴۰۶
پرسش
Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
پاسخ
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
کارت ۴۰۷
پرسش
Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
پاسخ
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
کارت ۴۰۸
پرسش
Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
پاسخ
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
کارت ۴۰۹
پرسش
Fixed-ratio schedule?
پاسخ
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
کارت ۴۱۰
پرسش
Observational learning?
پاسخ
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
کارت ۴۱۱
پرسش
A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
پاسخ
Positive reinforcement.
کارت ۴۱۲
پرسش
Primary reinforcer?
پاسخ
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
کارت ۴۱۳
پرسش
Variable-ratio schedule?
پاسخ
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
کارت ۴۱۴
پرسش
Modeling?
پاسخ
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
کارت ۴۱۵
پرسش
Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
پاسخ
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
کارت ۴۱۶
پرسش
Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
پاسخ
Negative reinforcement.
کارت ۴۱۷
پرسش
Conditioned reinforcer?
پاسخ
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
کارت ۴۱۸
پرسش
A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
پاسخ
Vicarious reinforcement.
کارت ۴۱۹
پرسش
Fixed-interval schedule?
پاسخ
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
کارت ۴۲۰
پرسش
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
پاسخ
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
کارت ۴۲۱
پرسش
A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
پاسخ
Positive punishment.
کارت ۴۲۲
پرسش
Shaping?
پاسخ
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
کارت ۴۲۳
پرسش
Extinction in operant conditioning?
پاسخ
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
کارت ۴۲۴
پرسش
Variable-interval schedule?
پاسخ
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
کارت ۴۲۵
پرسش
A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
پاسخ
Negative punishment.
کارت ۴۲۶
پرسش
Learned helplessness?
پاسخ
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
کارت ۴۲۷
پرسش
Continuous reinforcement?
پاسخ
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
کارت ۴۲۸
پرسش
A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
پاسخ
A fixed-interval schedule.
کارت ۴۲۹
پرسش
Discriminative stimulus?
پاسخ
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
کارت ۴۳۰
پرسش
Operant generalization versus discrimination?
پاسخ
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
کارت ۴۳۱
پرسش
Instinctive drift?
پاسخ
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
کارت ۴۳۲
پرسش
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
پاسخ
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
کارت ۴۳۳
پرسش
How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
پاسخ
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
کارت ۴۳۴
پرسش
How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
پاسخ
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
کارت ۴۳۵
پرسش
Vicarious conditioning?
پاسخ
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
کارت ۴۳۶
پرسش
A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
پاسخ
A variable-interval schedule.
کارت ۴۳۷
پرسش
Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
پاسخ
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
کارت ۴۳۸
پرسش
Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
پاسخ
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
کارت ۴۳۹
پرسش
Latent learning?
پاسخ
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
کارت ۴۴۰
پرسش
Cognitive map?
پاسخ
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
کارت ۴۴۱
پرسش
Insight learning?
پاسخ
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
کارت ۴۴۲
پرسش
Biological preparedness?
پاسخ
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
کارت ۴۴۳
پرسش
What can mirror-neuron activity show?
پاسخ
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
کارت ۴۴۴
پرسش
Attribution?
پاسخ
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
کارت ۴۴۵
پرسش
Attitude?
پاسخ
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
کارت ۴۴۶
پرسش
Upward social comparison?
پاسخ
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
کارت ۴۴۷
پرسش
Optimistic explanatory style?
پاسخ
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
کارت ۴۴۸
پرسش
Situational attribution?
پاسخ
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
کارت ۴۴۹
پرسش
A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
پاسخ
Cognitive dissonance.
کارت ۴۵۰
پرسش
Downward social comparison?
پاسخ
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
کارت ۴۵۱
پرسش
Internal locus of control?
پاسخ
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
کارت ۴۵۲
پرسش
Dispositional attribution?
پاسخ
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
کارت ۴۵۳
پرسش
Pessimistic explanatory style?
پاسخ
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
کارت ۴۵۴
پرسش
Relative deprivation?
پاسخ
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
کارت ۴۵۵
پرسش
External locus of control?
پاسخ
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
کارت ۴۵۶
پرسش
Fundamental attribution error?
پاسخ
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
کارت ۴۵۷
پرسش
Halo effect?
پاسخ
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
کارت ۴۵۸
پرسش
Self-fulfilling prophecy?
پاسخ
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
کارت ۴۵۹
پرسش
Mere-exposure effect?
پاسخ
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
کارت ۴۶۰
پرسش
A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
پاسخ
The actor–observer difference.
کارت ۴۶۱
پرسش
A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
پاسخ
The central route.
کارت ۴۶۲
پرسش
Effort justification?
پاسخ
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
کارت ۴۶۳
پرسش
Stereotype?
پاسخ
A generalized belief about members of a group.
کارت ۴۶۴
پرسش
A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
پاسخ
Self-serving bias.
کارت ۴۶۵
پرسش
A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
پاسخ
The peripheral route.
کارت ۴۶۶
پرسش
Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
پاسخ
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
کارت ۴۶۷
پرسش
Prejudice?
پاسخ
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
کارت ۴۶۸
پرسش
The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:

Workload Errors

Low 2

High 8

Which attribution is better supported?
پاسخ
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
کارت ۴۶۹
پرسش
Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
پاسخ
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
کارت ۴۷۰
پرسش
Conformity?
پاسخ
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
کارت ۴۷۱
پرسش
Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
پاسخ
The bystander effect.
کارت ۴۷۲
پرسش
Diffusion of responsibility?
پاسخ
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
کارت ۴۷۳
پرسش
How can taking on a role affect attitude?
پاسخ
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
کارت ۴۷۴
پرسش
In-group bias?
پاسخ
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
کارت ۴۷۵
پرسش
After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
پاسخ
The foot-in-the-door technique.
کارت ۴۷۶
پرسش
A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
پاسخ
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
کارت ۴۷۷
پرسش
When do attitudes best predict behavior?
پاسخ
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
کارت ۴۷۸
پرسش
Discrimination?
پاسخ
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
کارت ۴۷۹
پرسش
Out-group homogeneity effect?
پاسخ
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
کارت ۴۸۰
پرسش
After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
پاسخ
The door-in-the-face technique.
کارت ۴۸۱
پرسش
A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
پاسخ
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
کارت ۴۸۲
پرسش
Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
پاسخ
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
کارت ۴۸۳
پرسش
Just-world belief?
پاسخ
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
کارت ۴۸۴
پرسش
Implicit attitude?
پاسخ
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
کارت ۴۸۵
پرسش
Ethnocentrism?
پاسخ
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
کارت ۴۸۶
پرسش
How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
پاسخ
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
کارت ۴۸۷
پرسش
Normative social influence?
پاسخ
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
کارت ۴۸۸
پرسش
Psychodynamic view of personality?
پاسخ
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
کارت ۴۸۹
پرسش
Norm of reciprocity?
پاسخ
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
کارت ۴۹۰
پرسش
Individualism?
پاسخ
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
کارت ۴۹۱
پرسش
Informational social influence?
پاسخ
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
کارت ۴۹۲
پرسش
Id?
پاسخ
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
کارت ۴۹۳
پرسش
Altruism?
پاسخ
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
کارت ۴۹۴
پرسش
Social norm?
پاسخ
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
کارت ۴۹۵
پرسش
What tends to increase conformity?
پاسخ
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
کارت ۴۹۶
پرسش
Ego?
پاسخ
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
کارت ۴۹۷
پرسش
A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
پاسخ
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
کارت ۴۹۸
پرسش
Collectivism?
پاسخ
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
کارت ۴۹۹
پرسش
Obedience?
پاسخ
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
کارت ۵۰۰
پرسش
Superego?
پاسخ
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
کارت ۵۰۱
پرسش
A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
پاسخ
Denial.
کارت ۵۰۲
پرسش
Social-responsibility norm?
پاسخ
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
کارت ۵۰۳
پرسش
How does proximity affect attraction?
پاسخ
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
کارت ۵۰۴
پرسش
What tends to increase obedience?
پاسخ
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
کارت ۵۰۵
پرسش
After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
پاسخ
Displacement.
کارت ۵۰۶
پرسش
Social loafing?
پاسخ
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
کارت ۵۰۷
پرسش
Multiculturalism?
پاسخ
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
کارت ۵۰۸
پرسش
How does similarity affect attraction?
پاسخ
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
کارت ۵۰۹
پرسش
A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
پاسخ
Projection.
کارت ۵۱۰
پرسش
Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
پاسخ
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
کارت ۵۱۱
پرسش
Deindividuation?
پاسخ
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
کارت ۵۱۲
پرسش
Group polarization?
پاسخ
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
کارت ۵۱۳
پرسش
After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
پاسخ
Rationalization.
کارت ۵۱۴
پرسش
A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
پاسخ
Groupthink.
کارت ۵۱۵
پرسش
Pluralistic ignorance?
پاسخ
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
کارت ۵۱۶
پرسش
Social trap?
پاسخ
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
کارت ۵۱۷
پرسش
Reaction formation?
پاسخ
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
کارت ۵۱۸
پرسش
Superordinate goal?
پاسخ
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
کارت ۵۱۹
پرسش
False-consensus effect?
پاسخ
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
کارت ۵۲۰
پرسش
Industrial-organizational psychology?
پاسخ
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
کارت ۵۲۱
پرسش
Repression?
پاسخ
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
کارت ۵۲۲
پرسش
Burnout?
پاسخ
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
کارت ۵۲۳
پرسش
Unconditional positive regard?
پاسخ
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
کارت ۵۲۴
پرسش
Trait?
پاسخ
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
کارت ۵۲۵
پرسش
Regression as a defense mechanism?
پاسخ
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
کارت ۵۲۶
پرسش
Reciprocal determinism?
پاسخ
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
کارت ۵۲۷
پرسش
Self-efficacy?
پاسخ
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
کارت ۵۲۸
پرسش
Self-concept in humanistic theory?
پاسخ
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
کارت ۵۲۹
پرسش
Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
پاسخ
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
کارت ۵۳۰
پرسش
A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
پاسخ
Openness.
کارت ۵۳۱
پرسش
Personality inventory?
پاسخ
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
کارت ۵۳۲
پرسش
Self-actualizing tendency?
پاسخ
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
کارت ۵۳۳
پرسش
Self-esteem?
پاسخ
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
کارت ۵۳۴
پرسش
Instinct in motivation research?
پاسخ
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
کارت ۵۳۵
پرسش
A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
پاسخ
Conscientiousness.
کارت ۵۳۶
پرسش
Projective test?
پاسخ
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
کارت ۵۳۷
پرسش
How does factor analysis help trait research?
پاسخ
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
کارت ۵۳۸
پرسش
Drive-reduction theory?
پاسخ
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
کارت ۵۳۹
پرسش
A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
پاسخ
Extraversion.
کارت ۵۴۰
پرسش
Person–situation debate?
پاسخ
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
کارت ۵۴۱
پرسش
A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
پاسخ
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
کارت ۵۴۲
پرسش
Homeostasis?
پاسخ
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
کارت ۵۴۳
پرسش
Incentive theory?
پاسخ
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
کارت ۵۴۴
پرسش
Big Five agreeableness?
پاسخ
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
کارت ۵۴۵
پرسش
A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
پاسخ
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
کارت ۵۴۶
پرسش
A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
پاسخ
An approach–approach conflict.
کارت ۵۴۷
پرسش
Arousal theory of motivation?
پاسخ
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
کارت ۵۴۸
پرسش
Big Five emotional stability?
پاسخ
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
کارت ۵۴۹
پرسش
What regulates hunger?
پاسخ
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
کارت ۵۵۰
پرسش
Three broad components of emotion?
پاسخ
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
کارت ۵۵۱
پرسش
Self-determination theory?
پاسخ
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
کارت ۵۵۲
پرسش
Emotion regulation?
پاسخ
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
کارت ۵۵۳
پرسش
Sensation-seeking?
پاسخ
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
کارت ۵۵۴
پرسش
Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
پاسخ
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
کارت ۵۵۵
پرسش
Intrinsic motivation?
پاسخ
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
کارت ۵۵۶
پرسش
Display rules?
پاسخ
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
کارت ۵۵۷
پرسش
Arousal and performance relationship?
پاسخ
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
کارت ۵۵۸
پرسش
A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
پاسخ
An approach–avoidance conflict.
کارت ۵۵۹
پرسش
Extrinsic motivation?
پاسخ
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
کارت ۵۶۰
پرسش
Achievement motivation?
پاسخ
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
کارت ۵۶۱
پرسش
Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
پاسخ
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
کارت ۵۶۲
پرسش
A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
پاسخ
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
کارت ۵۶۳
پرسش
Overjustification effect?
پاسخ
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
کارت ۵۶۴
پرسش
Belongingness motivation?
پاسخ
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
کارت ۵۶۵
پرسش
Study time changed after students chose their own topic:

Condition Mean minutes

Assigned topic 34

Chosen topic 47

What is the observed mean difference?
پاسخ
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
کارت ۵۶۶
پرسش
Facial-feedback effect?
پاسخ
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
کارت ۵۶۷
پرسش
Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
پاسخ
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
کارت ۵۶۸
پرسش
A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
پاسخ
Cognitive reappraisal.
کارت ۵۶۹
پرسش
Broaden-and-build view?
پاسخ
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
کارت ۵۷۰
پرسش
Which emotions often appear across cultures?
پاسخ
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
کارت ۵۷۱
پرسش
How can the same arousal become different emotions?
پاسخ
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
کارت ۵۷۲
پرسش
Expressive suppression?
پاسخ
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
کارت ۵۷۳
پرسش
How does acute stress affect the body?
پاسخ
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
کارت ۵۷۴
پرسش
Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
پاسخ
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
کارت ۵۷۵
پرسش
In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
پاسخ
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
کارت ۵۷۶
پرسش
A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
پاسخ
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
کارت ۵۷۷
پرسش
Health psychology?
پاسخ
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
کارت ۵۷۸
پرسش
Positive psychology?
پاسخ
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
کارت ۵۷۹
پرسش
Stress?
پاسخ
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
کارت ۵۸۰
پرسش
A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
پاسخ
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
کارت ۵۸۱
پرسش
Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
پاسخ
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
کارت ۵۸۲
پرسش
Resilience?
پاسخ
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
کارت ۵۸۳
پرسش
Stressor?
پاسخ
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
کارت ۵۸۴
پرسش
General adaptation syndrome?
پاسخ
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
کارت ۵۸۵
پرسش
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
پاسخ
Problem-focused coping.
کارت ۵۸۶
پرسش
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
پاسخ
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
کارت ۵۸۷
پرسش
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
پاسخ
Primary appraisal.
کارت ۵۸۸
پرسش
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
پاسخ
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
کارت ۵۸۹
پرسش
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
پاسخ
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
کارت ۵۹۰
پرسش
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
پاسخ
Emotion-focused coping.
کارت ۵۹۱
پرسش
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
پاسخ
Secondary appraisal.
کارت ۵۹۲
پرسش
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
پاسخ
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
کارت ۵۹۳
پرسش
Adverse childhood experiences?
پاسخ
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
کارت ۵۹۴
پرسش
How can social support protect health?
پاسخ
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
کارت ۵۹۵
پرسش
Eustress versus distress?
پاسخ
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
کارت ۵۹۶
پرسش
Tend-and-befriend response?
پاسخ
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
کارت ۵۹۷
پرسش
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
پاسخ
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
کارت ۵۹۸
پرسش
Biofeedback?
پاسخ
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
کارت ۵۹۹
پرسش
How does perceived control affect stress?
پاسخ
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
کارت ۶۰۰
پرسش
Psychoneuroimmunology?
پاسخ
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
کارت ۶۰۱
پرسش
Subjective well-being?
پاسخ
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
کارت ۶۰۲
پرسش
Psychological disorder?
پاسخ
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
کارت ۶۰۳
پرسش
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
پاسخ
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
کارت ۶۰۴
پرسش
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
پاسخ
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
کارت ۶۰۵
پرسش
Signature strengths?
پاسخ
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
کارت ۶۰۶
پرسش
Biopsychosocial model?
پاسخ
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
کارت ۶۰۷
پرسش
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
پاسخ
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
کارت ۶۰۸
پرسش
Posttraumatic growth?
پاسخ
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
کارت ۶۰۹
پرسش
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
پاسخ
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
کارت ۶۱۰
پرسش
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
پاسخ
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
کارت ۶۱۱
پرسش
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
پاسخ
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
کارت ۶۱۲
پرسش
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
پاسخ
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
کارت ۶۱۳
پرسش
Biological explanation of disorder?
پاسخ
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
کارت ۶۱۴
پرسش
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
پاسخ
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
کارت ۶۱۵
پرسش
Purpose of the DSM?
پاسخ
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
کارت ۶۱۶
پرسش
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
پاسخ
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
کارت ۶۱۷
پرسش
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
پاسخ
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
کارت ۶۱۸
پرسش
Autism spectrum disorder?
پاسخ
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
کارت ۶۱۹
پرسش
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
پاسخ
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
کارت ۶۲۰
پرسش
Major depressive disorder?
پاسخ
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
کارت ۶۲۱
پرسش
Specific phobia?
پاسخ
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
کارت ۶۲۲
پرسش
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
پاسخ
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
کارت ۶۲۳
پرسش
Dissociative amnesia?
پاسخ
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
کارت ۶۲۴
پرسش
Bipolar I disorder?
پاسخ
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
کارت ۶۲۵
پرسش
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
پاسخ
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
کارت ۶۲۶
پرسش
Anorexia nervosa?
پاسخ
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
کارت ۶۲۷
پرسش
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
پاسخ
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
کارت ۶۲۸
پرسش
Bipolar II disorder?
پاسخ
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
کارت ۶۲۹
پرسش
Purpose of the ICD?
پاسخ
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
کارت ۶۳۰
پرسش
Bulimia nervosa?
پاسخ
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
کارت ۶۳۱
پرسش
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
پاسخ
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
کارت ۶۳۲
پرسش
Ataque de nervios?
پاسخ
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
کارت ۶۳۳
پرسش
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
پاسخ
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
کارت ۶۳۴
پرسش
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
پاسخ
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
کارت ۶۳۵
پرسش
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
پاسخ
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
کارت ۶۳۶
پرسش
Comorbidity?
پاسخ
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
کارت ۶۳۷
پرسش
Humanistic explanation of distress?
پاسخ
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
کارت ۶۳۸
پرسش
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
پاسخ
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
کارت ۶۳۹
پرسش
Stigma around mental disorder?
پاسخ
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
کارت ۶۴۰
پرسش
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
پاسخ
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
کارت ۶۴۱
پرسش
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
پاسخ
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
کارت ۶۴۲
پرسش
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
پاسخ
Interrater reliability.
کارت ۶۴۳
پرسش
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
پاسخ
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
کارت ۶۴۴
پرسش
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
پاسخ
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
کارت ۶۴۵
پرسش
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
پاسخ
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
کارت ۶۴۶
پرسش
Delusion?
پاسخ
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
کارت ۶۴۷
پرسش
Agoraphobia?
پاسخ
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
کارت ۶۴۸
پرسش
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
پاسخ
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
کارت ۶۴۹
پرسش
Eclectic approach to disorder?
پاسخ
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
کارت ۶۵۰
پرسش
Hallucination?
پاسخ
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
کارت ۶۵۱
پرسش
Panic disorder?
پاسخ
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
کارت ۶۵۲
پرسش
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
پاسخ
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
کارت ۶۵۳
پرسش
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
پاسخ
The diathesis–stress model.
کارت ۶۵۴
پرسش
Cluster A personality disorders?
پاسخ
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
کارت ۶۵۵
پرسش
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
پاسخ
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
کارت ۶۵۶
پرسش
Evidence-based treatment?
پاسخ
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
کارت ۶۵۷
پرسش
Therapeutic alliance?
پاسخ
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
کارت ۶۵۸
پرسش
Cultural humility in therapy?
پاسخ
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
کارت ۶۵۹
پرسش
Deinstitutionalization?
پاسخ
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
کارت ۶۶۰
پرسش
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
پاسخ
Exposure therapy.
کارت ۶۶۱
پرسش
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
پاسخ
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
کارت ۶۶۲
پرسش
Four medication categories in the course?
پاسخ
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
کارت ۶۶۳
پرسش
Depressive cognitive triad?
پاسخ
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
کارت ۶۶۴
پرسش
Applied behavior analysis?
پاسخ
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
کارت ۶۶۵
پرسش
Psychosurgery?
پاسخ
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
کارت ۶۶۶
پرسش
Free association?
پاسخ
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
کارت ۶۶۷
پرسش
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
پاسخ
Cognitive restructuring.
کارت ۶۶۸
پرسش
One advantage of group therapy?
پاسخ
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
کارت ۶۶۹
پرسش
Lobotomy?
پاسخ
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
کارت ۶۷۰
پرسش
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
پاسخ
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
کارت ۶۷۱
پرسش
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
پاسخ
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
کارت ۶۷۲
پرسش
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
پاسخ
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
کارت ۶۷۳
پرسش
Social anxiety disorder?
پاسخ
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
کارت ۶۷۴
پرسش
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
پاسخ
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
کارت ۶۷۵
پرسش
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
پاسخ
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
کارت ۶۷۶
پرسش
Dissociative fugue?
پاسخ
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
کارت ۶۷۷
پرسش
Cluster B personality disorders?
پاسخ
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
کارت ۶۷۸
پرسش
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
پاسخ
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
کارت ۶۷۹
پرسش
Catatonia?
پاسخ
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
کارت ۶۸۰
پرسش
Manic episode?
پاسخ
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
کارت ۶۸۱
پرسش
Dissociative identity disorder?
پاسخ
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
کارت ۶۸۲
پرسش
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
پاسخ
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
کارت ۶۸۳
پرسش
Cluster C personality disorders?
پاسخ
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
کارت ۶۸۴
پرسش
Taijin kyofusho?
پاسخ
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
کارت ۶۸۵
پرسش
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
پاسخ
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
کارت ۶۸۶
پرسش
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
پاسخ
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
کارت ۶۸۷
پرسش
Hypomanic episode?
پاسخ
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
کارت ۶۸۸
پرسش
Generalized anxiety disorder?
پاسخ
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
کارت ۶۸۹
پرسش
Hoarding disorder?
پاسخ
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
کارت ۶۹۰
پرسش
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
پاسخ
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
کارت ۶۹۱
پرسش
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
پاسخ
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
کارت ۶۹۲
پرسش
Persistent depressive disorder?
پاسخ
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
کارت ۶۹۳
پرسش
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
پاسخ
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
کارت ۶۹۴
پرسش
Systematic desensitization?
پاسخ
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
کارت ۶۹۵
پرسش
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
پاسخ
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
کارت ۶۹۶
پرسش
Dialectical behavior therapy?
پاسخ
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
کارت ۶۹۷
پرسش
Integrity in therapy ethics?
پاسخ
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
کارت ۶۹۸
پرسش
Aversion therapy?
پاسخ
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
کارت ۶۹۹
پرسش
Tardive dyskinesia?
پاسخ
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
کارت ۷۰۰
پرسش
ECT versus TMS?
پاسخ
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
کارت ۷۰۱
پرسش
Respect for rights and dignity?
پاسخ
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
کارت ۷۰۲
پرسش
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
پاسخ
A token economy.
کارت ۷۰۳
پرسش
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
پاسخ
Person-centered therapy.
کارت ۷۰۴
پرسش
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
پاسخ
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
کارت ۷۰۵
پرسش
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
پاسخ
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.

Workload	Errors
Low	2
High	8

Condition	Mean minutes
Assigned topic	34
Chosen topic	47

۷۰۵ کارت