AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
Review all five AP® Psychology units with 705 independently written cards covering concepts, scenarios, research methods, data interpretation, and evidence-based reasoning.
O tomto balíčku
Review all five units in the AP® Psychology course framework with 705 independently written English flashcards. The deck covers Biological Bases of Behavior, Cognition, Development and Learning, Social Psychology and Personality, and Mental and Physical Health. It supports all four science practices: Concept Application, Research Methods and Design, Data Interpretation, and Argumentation.
What the cards ask you to retrieve
- Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
- Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
- Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
- Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
- Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.
The order follows Units 1–5, keeps related material within the current or next topic, and introduces prerequisites and chronological steps first. Definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are separated by at least three unrelated cards. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences remain adjacent only when that progression helps learning.
What's deliberately left out
The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or use long essay prompts. It also leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.
Check the official AP Psychology course page for authoritative requirements. Psychological facts and the course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, ordering, and inherited generated cover, to the extent those rights exist.
This is an independent, unofficial study aid. It isn't affiliated with, endorsed by, sponsored by, or official material from College Board or the AP Program. AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this product. No College Board examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or trade dress were copied or adapted.
Kartičky v tomto balíčku
Kartička 1
Otázka
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
Odpoveď
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
Kartička 2
Otázka
Central nervous system?
Odpoveď
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
Kartička 3
Otázka
Main role of the spinal cord?
Odpoveď
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
Kartička 4
Otázka
Scores are
4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?Odpoveď
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
Kartička 5
Otázka
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
Odpoveď
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
Kartička 6
Otázka
Peripheral nervous system?
Odpoveď
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
Kartička 7
Otázka
Reflex arc?
Odpoveď
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
Kartička 8
Otázka
Reflex times are
180, 190, 210, 260, 410milliseconds. What is the median?Odpoveď
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
Kartička 9
Otázka
Heritability?
Odpoveď
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
Kartička 10
Otázka
Autonomic nervous system?
Odpoveď
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
Kartička 11
Otázka
Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
Odpoveď
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
Kartička 12
Otázka
Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
Odpoveď
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
Kartička 13
Otázka
Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
Odpoveď
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
Kartička 14
Otázka
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
Odpoveď
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
Kartička 15
Otázka
Natural selection?
Odpoveď
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
Kartička 16
Otázka
Somatic nervous system?
Odpoveď
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
Kartička 17
Otázka
Sensory neurons?
Odpoveď
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
Kartička 18
Otázka
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
Odpoveď
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
Kartička 19
Otázka
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
Odpoveď
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
Kartička 20
Otázka
Sympathetic nervous system?
Odpoveď
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
Kartička 21
Otázka
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
Odpoveď
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
Kartička 22
Otázka
Motor neurons?
Odpoveď
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
Kartička 23
Otázka
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
Odpoveď
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
Kartička 24
Otázka
Parasympathetic nervous system?
Odpoveď
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
Kartička 25
Otázka
Resting potential?
Odpoveď
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
Kartička 26
Otázka
Interneurons?
Odpoveď
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
Kartička 27
Otázka
Adrenaline's behavioral role?
Odpoveď
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
Kartička 28
Otázka
Frontal lobes?
Odpoveď
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
Kartička 29
Otázka
Neural threshold?
Odpoveď
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
Kartička 30
Otázka
Corpus callosum?
Odpoveď
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
Kartička 31
Otázka
Leptin's role in eating?
Odpoveď
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
Kartička 32
Otázka
Temporal lobes?
Odpoveď
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
Kartička 33
Otázka
Depolarization during an action potential?
Odpoveď
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
Kartička 34
Otázka
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
Odpoveď
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
Kartička 35
Otázka
Ghrelin's role in eating?
Odpoveď
It helps stimulate hunger.
Kartička 36
Otázka
Drug agonist?
Odpoveď
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
Kartička 37
Otázka
Action potential?
Odpoveď
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
Kartička 38
Otázka
Reuptake?
Odpoveď
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
Kartička 39
Otázka
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
Odpoveď
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
Kartička 40
Otázka
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
Odpoveď
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
Kartička 41
Otázka
Refractory period?
Odpoveď
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
Kartička 42
Otázka
Melatonin's role?
Odpoveď
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
Kartička 43
Otázka
Drug antagonist?
Odpoveď
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
Kartička 44
Otázka
Stimulants?
Odpoveď
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
Kartička 45
Otázka
Drug tolerance?
Odpoveď
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
Kartička 46
Otázka
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Odpoveď
Multiple sclerosis.
Kartička 47
Otázka
All-or-none principle?
Odpoveď
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
Kartička 48
Otázka
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
Odpoveď
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
Kartička 49
Otázka
GABA's major psychological function?
Odpoveď
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
Kartička 50
Otázka
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
Odpoveď
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
Kartička 51
Otázka
Reuptake inhibitor?
Odpoveď
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
Kartička 52
Otázka
Depressants?
Odpoveď
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
Kartička 53
Otázka
Drug withdrawal?
Odpoveď
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
Kartička 54
Otázka
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Odpoveď
Myasthenia gravis.
Kartička 55
Otázka
Glial cells?
Odpoveď
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
Kartička 56
Otázka
Endorphins?
Odpoveď
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
Kartička 57
Otázka
Substance P?
Odpoveď
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
Kartička 58
Otázka
Acetylcholine's major functions?
Odpoveď
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
Kartička 59
Otázka
Opioids?
Odpoveď
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
Kartička 60
Otázka
Hallucinogens?
Odpoveď
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
Kartička 61
Otázka
Addiction?
Odpoveď
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
Kartička 62
Otázka
Parietal lobes?
Odpoveď
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
Kartička 63
Otázka
Consciousness?
Odpoveď
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
Kartička 64
Otázka
Circadian rhythm?
Odpoveď
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
Kartička 65
Otázka
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
Odpoveď
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
Kartička 66
Otázka
Occipital lobes?
Odpoveď
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
Kartička 67
Otázka
What does split-brain research reveal?
Odpoveď
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
Kartička 68
Otázka
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
Odpoveď
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
Kartička 69
Otázka
NREM-1 sleep?
Odpoveď
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
Kartička 70
Otázka
Motor cortex?
Odpoveď
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
Kartička 71
Otázka
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
Odpoveď
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
Kartička 72
Otázka
Brainstem's core function?
Odpoveď
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
Kartička 73
Otázka
NREM-2 sleep?
Odpoveď
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
Kartička 74
Otázka
Somatosensory cortex?
Odpoveď
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
Kartička 75
Otázka
Medulla's main functions?
Odpoveď
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Kartička 76
Otázka
Reticular activating system?
Odpoveď
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
Kartička 77
Otázka
NREM-3 sleep?
Odpoveď
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
Kartička 78
Otázka
Cerebellum's main functions?
Odpoveď
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
Kartička 79
Otázka
Thalamus?
Odpoveď
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
Kartička 80
Otázka
Hypothalamus?
Odpoveď
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
Kartička 81
Otázka
REM sleep?
Odpoveď
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
Kartička 82
Otázka
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
Odpoveď
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
Kartička 83
Otázka
Amygdala?
Odpoveď
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
Kartička 84
Otázka
Hippocampus?
Odpoveď
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
Kartička 85
Otázka
How does sleep change across a typical night?
Odpoveď
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
Kartička 86
Otázka
Contralateral brain control?
Odpoveď
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
Kartička 87
Otázka
What does an EEG measure?
Odpoveď
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
Kartička 88
Otázka
Reward-center activity?
Odpoveď
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
Kartička 89
Otázka
Neuroplasticity?
Odpoveď
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
Kartička 90
Otázka
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
Odpoveď
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
Kartička 91
Otázka
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
Odpoveď
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
Kartička 92
Otázka
Insomnia?
Odpoveď
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
Kartička 93
Otázka
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
Odpoveď
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
Kartička 94
Otázka
Absolute threshold?
Odpoveď
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
Kartička 95
Otázka
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
Odpoveď
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
Kartička 96
Otázka
Narcolepsy?
Odpoveď
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
Kartička 97
Otázka
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
Odpoveď
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
Kartička 98
Otázka
Difference threshold?
Odpoveď
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
Kartička 99
Otázka
Consolidation view of dreams?
Odpoveď
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
Kartička 100
Otázka
REM sleep behavior disorder?
Odpoveď
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
Kartička 101
Otázka
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
Odpoveď
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
Kartička 102
Otázka
Weber's law?
Odpoveď
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
Kartička 103
Otázka
Two supported functions of sleep?
Odpoveď
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
Kartička 104
Otázka
Sleep apnea?
Odpoveď
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
Kartička 105
Otázka
REM rebound?
Odpoveď
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
Kartička 106
Otázka
Signal detection theory?
Odpoveď
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
Kartička 107
Otázka
Sensory transduction?
Odpoveď
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
Kartička 108
Otázka
Vestibular sense?
Odpoveď
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
Kartička 109
Otázka
Somnambulism?
Odpoveď
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
Kartička 110
Otázka
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
Odpoveď
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
Kartička 111
Otázka
What begins visual transduction?
Odpoveď
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
Kartička 112
Otázka
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
Odpoveď
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
Kartička 113
Otázka
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
Odpoveď
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
Kartička 114
Otázka
Accommodation in vision?
Odpoveď
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
Kartička 115
Otázka
Cones?
Odpoveď
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
Kartička 116
Otázka
What begins auditory transduction?
Odpoveď
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
Kartička 117
Otázka
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
Odpoveď
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
Kartička 118
Otázka
How is smell unusual among the senses?
Odpoveď
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
Kartička 119
Otázka
Kinesthesia?
Odpoveď
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
Kartička 120
Otázka
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
Odpoveď
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
Kartička 121
Otázka
Nearsightedness?
Odpoveď
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
Kartička 122
Otázka
Pheromones?
Odpoveď
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
Kartička 123
Otázka
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
Odpoveď
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
Kartička 124
Otázka
Volley theory of pitch?
Odpoveď
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
Kartička 125
Otázka
Farsightedness?
Odpoveď
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
Kartička 126
Otázka
Six taste qualities named in the course?
Odpoveď
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
Kartička 127
Otázka
Phantom-limb sensation?
Odpoveď
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
Kartička 128
Otázka
Sensory interaction?
Odpoveď
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
Kartička 129
Otázka
What causes most color-vision deficiency?
Odpoveď
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
Kartička 130
Otázka
Prosopagnosia?
Odpoveď
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
Kartička 131
Otázka
Rods?
Odpoveď
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
Kartička 132
Otázka
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
Odpoveď
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
Kartička 133
Otázka
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
Odpoveď
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
Kartička 134
Otázka
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
Odpoveď
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
Kartička 135
Otázka
What do the semicircular canals detect?
Odpoveď
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
Kartička 136
Otázka
Synesthesia?
Odpoveď
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
Kartička 137
Otázka
Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
Odpoveď
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
Kartička 138
Otázka
Blindsight?
Odpoveď
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
Kartička 139
Otázka
Sensory adaptation?
Odpoveď
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
Kartička 140
Otázka
Gate-control view of pain?
Odpoveď
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
Kartička 141
Otázka
Bottom-up processing?
Odpoveď
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
Kartička 142
Otázka
Concept?
Odpoveď
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Kartička 143
Otázka
Fixation in problem solving?
Odpoveď
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
Kartička 144
Otázka
Algorithm?
Odpoveď
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
Kartička 145
Otázka
Top-down processing?
Odpoveď
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
Kartička 146
Otázka
Confirmation bias?
Odpoveď
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
Kartička 147
Otázka
Retinal disparity?
Odpoveď
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
Kartička 148
Otázka
Heuristic?
Odpoveď
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
Kartička 149
Otázka
Selective attention?
Odpoveď
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
Kartička 150
Otázka
Figure–ground organization?
Odpoveď
Separating the object of attention from its background.
Kartička 151
Otázka
Convergence as a depth cue?
Odpoveď
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
Kartička 152
Otázka
Representativeness heuristic?
Odpoveď
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
Kartička 153
Otázka
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
Odpoveď
Inattentional blindness.
Kartička 154
Otázka
Gestalt proximity principle?
Odpoveď
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
Kartička 155
Otázka
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
Odpoveď
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
Kartička 156
Otázka
Cocktail-party effect?
Odpoveď
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
Kartička 157
Otázka
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
Odpoveď
Change blindness.
Kartička 158
Otázka
Gestalt similarity principle?
Odpoveď
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
Kartička 159
Otázka
Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
Odpoveď
Linear perspective.
Kartička 160
Otázka
Perceptual constancy?
Odpoveď
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
Kartička 161
Otázka
Perceptual set?
Odpoveď
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
Kartička 162
Otázka
Gestalt closure principle?
Odpoveď
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
Kartička 163
Otázka
One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
Odpoveď
The blocking object, using interposition.
Kartička 164
Otázka
Apparent motion?
Odpoveď
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
Kartička 165
Otázka
Availability heuristic?
Odpoveď
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
Kartička 166
Otázka
Divergent thinking?
Odpoveď
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
Kartička 167
Otázka
A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
Odpoveď
Relative clarity.
Kartička 168
Otázka
Prototype?
Odpoveď
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
Kartička 169
Otázka
Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
Odpoveď
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
Kartička 170
Otázka
Convergent thinking?
Odpoveď
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
Kartička 171
Otázka
A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
Odpoveď
Texture gradient.
Kartička 172
Otázka
Belief perseverance?
Odpoveď
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
Kartička 173
Otázka
Explicit memory?
Odpoveď
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
Kartička 174
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Three stores in the multi-store model?
Odpoveď
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Kartička 175
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Seeing an object only in its usual role?
Odpoveď
Functional fixedness.
Kartička 176
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Mental set?
Odpoveď
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
Kartička 177
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Episodic memory?
Odpoveď
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
Kartička 178
Otázka
Working memory?
Odpoveď
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
Kartička 179
Otázka
Insight?
Odpoveď
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Kartička 180
Otázka
Framing effect?
Odpoveď
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
Kartička 181
Otázka
Implicit memory?
Odpoveď
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
Kartička 182
Otázka
Overconfidence bias?
Odpoveď
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
Kartička 183
Otázka
Anchoring bias?
Odpoveď
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
Kartička 184
Otázka
Schema in thinking?
Odpoveď
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
Kartička 185
Otázka
Procedural memory?
Odpoveď
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
Kartička 186
Otázka
Gambler's fallacy?
Odpoveď
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
Kartička 187
Otázka
Sunk-cost fallacy?
Odpoveď
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
Kartička 188
Otázka
Executive functions?
Odpoveď
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
Kartička 189
Otázka
How can priming affect judgment?
Odpoveď
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
Kartička 190
Otázka
Central executive in working memory?
Odpoveď
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
Kartička 191
Otázka
Serial-position effect?
Odpoveď
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
Kartička 192
Otázka
Semantic memory?
Odpoveď
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
Kartička 193
Otázka
Levels-of-processing principle?
Odpoveď
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
Kartička 194
Otázka
Automatic processing?
Odpoveď
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
Kartička 195
Otázka
Maintenance rehearsal?
Odpoveď
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
Kartička 196
Otázka
Prospective memory?
Odpoveď
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
Kartička 197
Otázka
Primacy effect?
Odpoveď
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
Kartička 198
Otázka
Long-term memory?
Odpoveď
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
Kartička 199
Otázka
Highly superior autobiographical memory?
Odpoveď
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
Kartička 200
Otázka
Effortful processing?
Odpoveď
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
Kartička 201
Otázka
Elaborative rehearsal?
Odpoveď
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
Kartička 202
Otázka
Memory consolidation?
Odpoveď
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
Kartička 203
Otázka
Recency effect?
Odpoveď
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
Kartička 204
Otázka
Spacing effect?
Odpoveď
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
Kartička 205
Otázka
Testing effect?
Odpoveď
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
Kartička 206
Otázka
Chunking?
Odpoveď
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
Kartička 207
Otázka
Mnemonic?
Odpoveď
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
Kartička 208
Otázka
Why organize material into a hierarchy?
Odpoveď
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
Kartička 209
Otázka
How can a schema help encoding?
Odpoveď
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
Kartička 210
Otázka
Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
Odpoveď
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
Kartička 211
Otázka
Iconic memory?
Odpoveď
A very brief visual sensory memory.
Kartička 212
Otázka
Recall?
Odpoveď
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
Kartička 213
Otázka
Retrieval cue?
Odpoveď
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
Kartička 214
Otázka
Encoding-specificity principle?
Odpoveď
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
Kartička 215
Otázka
Context-dependent memory?
Odpoveď
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
Kartička 216
Otázka
Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
Odpoveď
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
Kartička 217
Otázka
Echoic memory?
Odpoveď
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
Kartička 218
Otázka
Anterograde amnesia?
Odpoveď
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
Kartička 219
Otázka
Phonological loop?
Odpoveď
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
Kartička 220
Otázka
Cerebellum's memory role?
Odpoveď
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
Kartička 221
Otázka
Why is short-term memory described as limited?
Odpoveď
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
Kartička 222
Otázka
Retrograde amnesia?
Odpoveď
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
Kartička 223
Otázka
Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
Odpoveď
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
Kartička 224
Otázka
How can the amygdala affect memory?
Odpoveď
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
Kartička 225
Otázka
Visuospatial sketchpad?
Odpoveď
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
Kartička 226
Otázka
Long-term potentiation?
Odpoveď
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
Kartička 227
Otázka
Infantile amnesia?
Odpoveď
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
Kartička 228
Otázka
Alzheimer's disease?
Odpoveď
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
Kartička 229
Otázka
Scores are
2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?Odpoveď
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because
9 - 2 = 7.Kartička 230
Otázka
Recognition?
Odpoveď
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
Kartička 231
Otázka
Why is memory called reconstructive?
Odpoveď
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
Kartička 232
Otázka
Storage decay?
Odpoveď
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
Kartička 233
Otázka
State-dependent memory?
Odpoveď
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
Kartička 234
Otázka
Relearning?
Odpoveď
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
Kartička 235
Otázka
Misinformation effect?
Odpoveď
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
Kartička 236
Otázka
A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
Odpoveď
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
Kartička 237
Otázka
Mood-congruent memory?
Odpoveď
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
Kartička 238
Otázka
Priming?
Odpoveď
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
Kartička 239
Otázka
Tip-of-the-tongue state?
Odpoveď
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
Kartička 240
Otázka
Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
Odpoveď
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
Kartička 241
Otázka
Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
Odpoveď
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
Kartička 242
Otázka
Metacognition?
Odpoveď
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
Kartička 243
Otázka
Source amnesia?
Odpoveď
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
Kartička 244
Otázka
Test standardization?
Odpoveď
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
Kartička 245
Otázka
Reliability?
Odpoveď
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
Kartička 246
Otázka
Stereotype threat?
Odpoveď
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
Kartička 247
Otázka
General intelligence, or g?
Odpoveď
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
Kartička 248
Otázka
Encoding failure?
Odpoveď
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
Kartička 249
Otázka
Validity?
Odpoveď
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
Kartička 250
Otázka
Proactive interference?
Odpoveď
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
Kartička 251
Otázka
Imagination inflation?
Odpoveď
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
Kartička 252
Otázka
A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
Odpoveď
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
Kartička 253
Otázka
Retrieval failure?
Odpoveď
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
Kartička 254
Otázka
Retroactive interference?
Odpoveď
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
Kartička 255
Otázka
A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
Odpoveď
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
Kartička 256
Otázka
Repression in psychodynamic theory?
Odpoveď
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
Kartička 257
Otázka
Flashbulb memory?
Odpoveď
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
Kartička 258
Otázka
A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
Odpoveď
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
Kartička 259
Otázka
A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
Odpoveď
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
Kartička 260
Otázka
Stereotype lift?
Odpoveď
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
Kartička 261
Otázka
Achievement test?
Odpoveď
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
Kartička 262
Otázka
Construct validity?
Odpoveď
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
Kartička 263
Otázka
Test–retest reliability?
Odpoveď
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
Kartička 264
Otázka
Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
Odpoveď
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
Kartička 265
Otázka
Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
Odpoveď
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
Kartička 266
Otázka
Aptitude test?
Odpoveď
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
Kartička 267
Otázka
Traditional IQ formula?
Odpoveď
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
Kartička 268
Otázka
Predictive validity?
Odpoveď
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
Kartička 269
Otázka
What does a normal score distribution look like?
Odpoveď
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
Kartička 270
Otázka
Split-half reliability?
Odpoveď
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
Kartička 271
Otázka
Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
Odpoveď
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
Kartička 272
Otázka
Flynn effect?
Odpoveď
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
Kartička 273
Otázka
A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
Odpoveď
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
Kartička 274
Otázka
Continuous versus stage development?
Odpoveď
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
Kartička 275
Otázka
How can prenatal environment affect later development?
Odpoveď
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
Kartička 276
Otázka
Teratogen?
Odpoveď
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
Kartička 277
Otázka
Maturation?
Odpoveď
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
Kartička 278
Otázka
Stability–change question in development?
Odpoveď
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
Kartička 279
Otázka
A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
Odpoveď
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
Kartička 280
Otázka
Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
Odpoveď
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
Kartička 281
Otázka
Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
Odpoveď
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
Kartička 282
Otázka
Fine versus gross motor skills?
Odpoveď
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
Kartička 283
Otázka
Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
Odpoveď
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
Kartička 284
Otázka
What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
Odpoveď
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
Kartička 285
Otázka
Puberty?
Odpoveď
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
Kartička 286
Otázka
Sensitive period?
Odpoveď
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
Kartička 287
Otázka
What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
Odpoveď
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
Kartička 288
Otázka
Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
Odpoveď
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
Kartička 289
Otázka
Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
Odpoveď
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
Kartička 290
Otázka
Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
Odpoveď
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
Kartička 291
Otázka
Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
Odpoveď
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
Kartička 292
Otázka
Menarche?
Odpoveď
The first menstrual period.
Kartička 293
Otázka
Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
Odpoveď
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
Kartička 294
Otázka
About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
Odpoveď
About 68%.
Kartička 295
Otázka
A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
Odpoveď
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
Kartička 296
Otázka
Spermarche?
Odpoveď
The first ejaculation.
Kartička 297
Otázka
Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
Odpoveď
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
Kartička 298
Otázka
Imprinting?
Odpoveď
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
Kartička 299
Otázka
Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
Odpoveď
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
Kartička 300
Otázka
Menopause?
Odpoveď
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
Kartička 301
Otázka
Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
Odpoveď
Naturalistic observation.
Kartička 302
Otázka
How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
Odpoveď
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
Kartička 303
Otázka
Gender identity?
Odpoveď
A person's internal sense of their gender.
Kartička 304
Otázka
Gender role?
Odpoveď
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
Kartička 305
Otázka
Sex versus gender?
Odpoveď
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
Kartička 306
Otázka
Common sensory change in later adulthood?
Odpoveď
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
Kartička 307
Otázka
Sexual orientation?
Odpoveď
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
Kartička 308
Otázka
Gender schema?
Odpoveď
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
Kartička 309
Otázka
Best broad view of gender development?
Odpoveď
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
Kartička 310
Otázka
Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
Odpoveď
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
Kartička 311
Otázka
Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
Odpoveď
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
Kartička 312
Otázka
Schema in cognitive development?
Odpoveď
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
Kartička 313
Otázka
Sensorimotor stage?
Odpoveď
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
Kartička 314
Otázka
Preoperational stage?
Odpoveď
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
Kartička 315
Otázka
Assimilation?
Odpoveď
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
Kartička 316
Otázka
A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
Odpoveď
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
Kartička 317
Otázka
Animism in preoperational thought?
Odpoveď
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
Kartička 318
Otázka
Concrete operational stage?
Odpoveď
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
Kartička 319
Otázka
Accommodation?
Odpoveď
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
Kartička 320
Otázka
Reversibility in cognitive development?
Odpoveď
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
Kartička 321
Otázka
How can social learning shape gender expression?
Odpoveď
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
Kartička 322
Otázka
A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
Odpoveď
Assimilation.
Kartička 323
Otázka
Language?
Odpoveď
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
Kartička 324
Otázka
Cooing stage?
Odpoveď
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
Kartička 325
Otázka
Babbling stage?
Odpoveď
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
Kartička 326
Otázka
One-word stage?
Odpoveď
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
Kartička 327
Otázka
Grammar?
Odpoveď
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
Kartička 328
Otázka
A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
Odpoveď
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
Kartička 329
Otázka
Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
Odpoveď
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
Kartička 330
Otázka
A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
Odpoveď
Accommodation.
Kartička 331
Otázka
A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
Odpoveď
Scaffolding.
Kartička 332
Otázka
A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
Odpoveď
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
Kartička 333
Otázka
Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
Odpoveď
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
Kartička 334
Otázka
An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
Odpoveď
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
Kartička 335
Otázka
Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
Odpoveď
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
Kartička 336
Otázka
Formal operational stage?
Odpoveď
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
Kartička 337
Otázka
Dementia?
Odpoveď
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
Kartička 338
Otázka
Phoneme?
Odpoveď
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
Kartička 339
Otázka
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
Odpoveď
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
Kartička 340
Otázka
Temperament?
Odpoveď
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
Kartička 341
Otázka
Attachment?
Odpoveď
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
Kartička 342
Otázka
Erikson's infancy conflict?
Odpoveď
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
Kartička 343
Otázka
Microsystem?
Odpoveď
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
Kartička 344
Otázka
Erikson's toddler conflict?
Odpoveď
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
Kartička 345
Otázka
Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
Odpoveď
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
Kartička 346
Otázka
Erikson's school-age conflict?
Odpoveď
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
Kartička 347
Otázka
Mesosystem?
Odpoveď
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
Kartička 348
Otázka
Erikson's adolescent conflict?
Odpoveď
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
Kartička 349
Otázka
Erikson's young-adult conflict?
Odpoveď
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
Kartička 350
Otázka
Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
Odpoveď
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
Kartička 351
Otázka
Exosystem?
Odpoveď
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
Kartička 352
Otázka
Morpheme?
Odpoveď
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
Kartička 353
Otázka
Telegraphic speech?
Odpoveď
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
705 kartičiek
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Kartička 354
Otázka
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
Odpoveď
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
Kartička 355
Otázka
Macrosystem?
Odpoveď
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
Kartička 356
Otázka
Semantics?
Odpoveď
The meanings of words and sentences.
Kartička 357
Otázka
A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
Odpoveď
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
Kartička 358
Otázka
What does a sensitive period for language imply?
Odpoveď
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
Kartička 359
Otázka
Does language completely determine thought?
Odpoveď
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
Kartička 360
Otázka
Syntax?
Odpoveď
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
Kartička 361
Otázka
A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
Odpoveď
Secure attachment.
Kartička 362
Otázka
How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
Odpoveď
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
Kartička 363
Otázka
Authoritative parenting?
Odpoveď
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
Kartička 364
Otázka
Identity achievement?
Odpoveď
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
Kartička 365
Otázka
Avoidant attachment pattern?
Odpoveď
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
Kartička 366
Otázka
Classical conditioning?
Odpoveď
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
Kartička 367
Otázka
Unconditioned stimulus?
Odpoveď
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
Kartička 368
Otázka
Unconditioned response?
Odpoveď
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
Kartička 369
Otázka
Conditioned stimulus?
Odpoveď
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
Kartička 370
Otázka
Conditioned response?
Odpoveď
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Kartička 371
Otázka
Acquisition in classical conditioning?
Odpoveď
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Kartička 372
Otázka
During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
Odpoveď
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
Kartička 373
Otázka
Authoritarian parenting?
Odpoveď
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
Kartička 374
Otázka
Identity diffusion?
Odpoveď
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
Kartička 375
Otázka
Extinction in classical conditioning?
Odpoveď
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
Kartička 376
Otázka
Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
Odpoveď
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
Kartička 377
Otázka
Permissive parenting?
Odpoveď
High warmth with few demands or limits.
Kartička 378
Otázka
Parallel play?
Odpoveď
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
Kartička 379
Otázka
Imaginary audience?
Odpoveď
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
Kartička 380
Otázka
Identity foreclosure?
Odpoveď
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
Kartička 381
Otázka
Disorganized attachment pattern?
Odpoveď
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
Kartička 382
Otázka
Neglectful parenting?
Odpoveď
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
Kartička 383
Otázka
Chronosystem?
Odpoveď
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
Kartička 384
Otázka
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
Odpoveď
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
Kartička 385
Otázka
Personal fable?
Odpoveď
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
Kartička 386
Otázka
Identity moratorium?
Odpoveď
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
Kartička 387
Otázka
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
Odpoveď
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
Kartička 388
Otázka
Separation anxiety in infancy?
Odpoveď
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
Kartička 389
Otázka
What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
Odpoveď
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
Kartička 390
Otázka
Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
Odpoveď
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
Kartička 391
Otázka
Emerging adulthood?
Odpoveď
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
Kartička 392
Otázka
Social clock?
Odpoveď
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
Kartička 393
Otázka
Erikson's later-adult conflict?
Odpoveď
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
Kartička 394
Otázka
Possible selves?
Odpoveď
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
Kartička 395
Otázka
Stimulus generalization?
Odpoveď
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
Kartička 396
Otázka
Operant conditioning?
Odpoveď
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
Kartička 397
Otázka
Law of effect?
Odpoveď
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
Kartička 398
Otázka
Spontaneous recovery?
Odpoveď
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
Kartička 399
Otázka
Stimulus discrimination?
Odpoveď
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
Kartička 400
Otázka
Reinforcement?
Odpoveď
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
Kartička 401
Otázka
Higher-order conditioning?
Odpoveď
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
Kartička 402
Otázka
Counterconditioning?
Odpoveď
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
Kartička 403
Otázka
Habituation?
Odpoveď
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
Kartička 404
Otázka
Punishment?
Odpoveď
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
Kartička 405
Otázka
Partial reinforcement?
Odpoveď
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
Kartička 406
Otázka
Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
Odpoveď
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
Kartička 407
Otázka
Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
Odpoveď
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
Kartička 408
Otázka
Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
Odpoveď
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
Kartička 409
Otázka
Fixed-ratio schedule?
Odpoveď
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
Kartička 410
Otázka
Observational learning?
Odpoveď
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
Kartička 411
Otázka
A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
Odpoveď
Positive reinforcement.
Kartička 412
Otázka
Primary reinforcer?
Odpoveď
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
Kartička 413
Otázka
Variable-ratio schedule?
Odpoveď
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
Kartička 414
Otázka
Modeling?
Odpoveď
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
Kartička 415
Otázka
Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
Odpoveď
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
Kartička 416
Otázka
Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
Odpoveď
Negative reinforcement.
Kartička 417
Otázka
Conditioned reinforcer?
Odpoveď
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
Kartička 418
Otázka
A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
Odpoveď
Vicarious reinforcement.
Kartička 419
Otázka
Fixed-interval schedule?
Odpoveď
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
Kartička 420
Otázka
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
Odpoveď
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
Kartička 421
Otázka
A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
Odpoveď
Positive punishment.
Kartička 422
Otázka
Shaping?
Odpoveď
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
Kartička 423
Otázka
Extinction in operant conditioning?
Odpoveď
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
Kartička 424
Otázka
Variable-interval schedule?
Odpoveď
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
Kartička 425
Otázka
A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
Odpoveď
Negative punishment.
Kartička 426
Otázka
Learned helplessness?
Odpoveď
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
Kartička 427
Otázka
Continuous reinforcement?
Odpoveď
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
Kartička 428
Otázka
A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
Odpoveď
A fixed-interval schedule.
Kartička 429
Otázka
Discriminative stimulus?
Odpoveď
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
Kartička 430
Otázka
Operant generalization versus discrimination?
Odpoveď
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
Kartička 431
Otázka
Instinctive drift?
Odpoveď
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
Kartička 432
Otázka
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
Odpoveď
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
Kartička 433
Otázka
How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
Odpoveď
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
Kartička 434
Otázka
How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
Odpoveď
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
Kartička 435
Otázka
Vicarious conditioning?
Odpoveď
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
Kartička 436
Otázka
A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
Odpoveď
A variable-interval schedule.
Kartička 437
Otázka
Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
Odpoveď
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
Kartička 438
Otázka
Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
Odpoveď
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
Kartička 439
Otázka
Latent learning?
Odpoveď
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
Kartička 440
Otázka
Cognitive map?
Odpoveď
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
Kartička 441
Otázka
Insight learning?
Odpoveď
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
Kartička 442
Otázka
Biological preparedness?
Odpoveď
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
Kartička 443
Otázka
What can mirror-neuron activity show?
Odpoveď
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
Kartička 444
Otázka
Attribution?
Odpoveď
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
Kartička 445
Otázka
Attitude?
Odpoveď
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
Kartička 446
Otázka
Upward social comparison?
Odpoveď
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
Kartička 447
Otázka
Optimistic explanatory style?
Odpoveď
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
Kartička 448
Otázka
Situational attribution?
Odpoveď
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
Kartička 449
Otázka
A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
Odpoveď
Cognitive dissonance.
Kartička 450
Otázka
Downward social comparison?
Odpoveď
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
Kartička 451
Otázka
Internal locus of control?
Odpoveď
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
Kartička 452
Otázka
Dispositional attribution?
Odpoveď
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
Kartička 453
Otázka
Pessimistic explanatory style?
Odpoveď
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
Kartička 454
Otázka
Relative deprivation?
Odpoveď
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
Kartička 455
Otázka
External locus of control?
Odpoveď
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
Kartička 456
Otázka
Fundamental attribution error?
Odpoveď
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
Kartička 457
Otázka
Halo effect?
Odpoveď
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
Kartička 458
Otázka
Self-fulfilling prophecy?
Odpoveď
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
Kartička 459
Otázka
Mere-exposure effect?
Odpoveď
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
Kartička 460
Otázka
A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
Odpoveď
The actor–observer difference.
Kartička 461
Otázka
A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
Odpoveď
The central route.
Kartička 462
Otázka
Effort justification?
Odpoveď
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
Kartička 463
Otázka
Stereotype?
Odpoveď
A generalized belief about members of a group.
Kartička 464
Otázka
A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
Odpoveď
Self-serving bias.
Kartička 465
Otázka
A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
Odpoveď
The peripheral route.
Kartička 466
Otázka
Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
Odpoveď
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
Kartička 467
Otázka
Prejudice?
Odpoveď
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
Kartička 468
Otázka
The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:
Workload Errors Low 2 High 8 Which attribution is better supported?
Odpoveď
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
Kartička 469
Otázka
Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
Odpoveď
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
Kartička 470
Otázka
Conformity?
Odpoveď
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
Kartička 471
Otázka
Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
Odpoveď
The bystander effect.
Kartička 472
Otázka
Diffusion of responsibility?
Odpoveď
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
Kartička 473
Otázka
How can taking on a role affect attitude?
Odpoveď
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
Kartička 474
Otázka
In-group bias?
Odpoveď
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
Kartička 475
Otázka
After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
Odpoveď
The foot-in-the-door technique.
Kartička 476
Otázka
A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
Odpoveď
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
Kartička 477
Otázka
When do attitudes best predict behavior?
Odpoveď
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
Kartička 478
Otázka
Discrimination?
Odpoveď
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
Kartička 479
Otázka
Out-group homogeneity effect?
Odpoveď
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
Kartička 480
Otázka
After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
Odpoveď
The door-in-the-face technique.
Kartička 481
Otázka
A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
Odpoveď
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
Kartička 482
Otázka
Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
Odpoveď
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
Kartička 483
Otázka
Just-world belief?
Odpoveď
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
Kartička 484
Otázka
Implicit attitude?
Odpoveď
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
Kartička 485
Otázka
Ethnocentrism?
Odpoveď
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
Kartička 486
Otázka
How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
Odpoveď
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
Kartička 487
Otázka
Normative social influence?
Odpoveď
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
Kartička 488
Otázka
Psychodynamic view of personality?
Odpoveď
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
Kartička 489
Otázka
Norm of reciprocity?
Odpoveď
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
Kartička 490
Otázka
Individualism?
Odpoveď
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
Kartička 491
Otázka
Informational social influence?
Odpoveď
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
Kartička 492
Otázka
Id?
Odpoveď
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
Kartička 493
Otázka
Altruism?
Odpoveď
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
Kartička 494
Otázka
Social norm?
Odpoveď
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
Kartička 495
Otázka
What tends to increase conformity?
Odpoveď
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
Kartička 496
Otázka
Ego?
Odpoveď
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
Kartička 497
Otázka
A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
Odpoveď
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
Kartička 498
Otázka
Collectivism?
Odpoveď
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
Kartička 499
Otázka
Obedience?
Odpoveď
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
Kartička 500
Otázka
Superego?
Odpoveď
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
Kartička 501
Otázka
A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
Odpoveď
Denial.
Kartička 502
Otázka
Social-responsibility norm?
Odpoveď
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
Kartička 503
Otázka
How does proximity affect attraction?
Odpoveď
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
Kartička 504
Otázka
What tends to increase obedience?
Odpoveď
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
Kartička 505
Otázka
After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
Odpoveď
Displacement.
Kartička 506
Otázka
Social loafing?
Odpoveď
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
Kartička 507
Otázka
Multiculturalism?
Odpoveď
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
Kartička 508
Otázka
How does similarity affect attraction?
Odpoveď
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
Kartička 509
Otázka
A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
Odpoveď
Projection.
Kartička 510
Otázka
Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
Odpoveď
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
Kartička 511
Otázka
Deindividuation?
Odpoveď
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
Kartička 512
Otázka
Group polarization?
Odpoveď
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
Kartička 513
Otázka
After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
Odpoveď
Rationalization.
Kartička 514
Otázka
A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
Odpoveď
Groupthink.
Kartička 515
Otázka
Pluralistic ignorance?
Odpoveď
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
Kartička 516
Otázka
Social trap?
Odpoveď
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
Kartička 517
Otázka
Reaction formation?
Odpoveď
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
Kartička 518
Otázka
Superordinate goal?
Odpoveď
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
Kartička 519
Otázka
False-consensus effect?
Odpoveď
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
Kartička 520
Otázka
Industrial-organizational psychology?
Odpoveď
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
Kartička 521
Otázka
Repression?
Odpoveď
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
Kartička 522
Otázka
Burnout?
Odpoveď
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
Kartička 523
Otázka
Unconditional positive regard?
Odpoveď
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
Kartička 524
Otázka
Trait?
Odpoveď
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
Kartička 525
Otázka
Regression as a defense mechanism?
Odpoveď
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
Kartička 526
Otázka
Reciprocal determinism?
Odpoveď
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
Kartička 527
Otázka
Self-efficacy?
Odpoveď
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
Kartička 528
Otázka
Self-concept in humanistic theory?
Odpoveď
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
Kartička 529
Otázka
Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
Odpoveď
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
Kartička 530
Otázka
A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Odpoveď
Openness.
Kartička 531
Otázka
Personality inventory?
Odpoveď
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
Kartička 532
Otázka
Self-actualizing tendency?
Odpoveď
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
Kartička 533
Otázka
Self-esteem?
Odpoveď
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
Kartička 534
Otázka
Instinct in motivation research?
Odpoveď
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
Kartička 535
Otázka
A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Odpoveď
Conscientiousness.
Kartička 536
Otázka
Projective test?
Odpoveď
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
Kartička 537
Otázka
How does factor analysis help trait research?
Odpoveď
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
Kartička 538
Otázka
Drive-reduction theory?
Odpoveď
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
Kartička 539
Otázka
A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Odpoveď
Extraversion.
Kartička 540
Otázka
Person–situation debate?
Odpoveď
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
Kartička 541
Otázka
A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
Odpoveď
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
Kartička 542
Otázka
Homeostasis?
Odpoveď
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
Kartička 543
Otázka
Incentive theory?
Odpoveď
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
Kartička 544
Otázka
Big Five agreeableness?
Odpoveď
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
Kartička 545
Otázka
A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
Odpoveď
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
Kartička 546
Otázka
A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
Odpoveď
An approach–approach conflict.
Kartička 547
Otázka
Arousal theory of motivation?
Odpoveď
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
Kartička 548
Otázka
Big Five emotional stability?
Odpoveď
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
Kartička 549
Otázka
What regulates hunger?
Odpoveď
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
Kartička 550
Otázka
Three broad components of emotion?
Odpoveď
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
Kartička 551
Otázka
Self-determination theory?
Odpoveď
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
Kartička 552
Otázka
Emotion regulation?
Odpoveď
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
Kartička 553
Otázka
Sensation-seeking?
Odpoveď
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
Kartička 554
Otázka
Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
Odpoveď
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
Kartička 555
Otázka
Intrinsic motivation?
Odpoveď
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
Kartička 556
Otázka
Display rules?
Odpoveď
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
Kartička 557
Otázka
Arousal and performance relationship?
Odpoveď
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
Kartička 558
Otázka
A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
Odpoveď
An approach–avoidance conflict.
Kartička 559
Otázka
Extrinsic motivation?
Odpoveď
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
Kartička 560
Otázka
Achievement motivation?
Odpoveď
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
Kartička 561
Otázka
Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
Odpoveď
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
Kartička 562
Otázka
A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
Odpoveď
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
Kartička 563
Otázka
Overjustification effect?
Odpoveď
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
Kartička 564
Otázka
Belongingness motivation?
Odpoveď
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
Kartička 565
Otázka
Study time changed after students chose their own topic:
Condition Mean minutes Assigned topic 34 Chosen topic 47 What is the observed mean difference?
Odpoveď
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
Kartička 566
Otázka
Facial-feedback effect?
Odpoveď
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
Kartička 567
Otázka
Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
Odpoveď
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
Kartička 568
Otázka
A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
Odpoveď
Cognitive reappraisal.
Kartička 569
Otázka
Broaden-and-build view?
Odpoveď
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
Kartička 570
Otázka
Which emotions often appear across cultures?
Odpoveď
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
Kartička 571
Otázka
How can the same arousal become different emotions?
Odpoveď
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
Kartička 572
Otázka
Expressive suppression?
Odpoveď
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
Kartička 573
Otázka
How does acute stress affect the body?
Odpoveď
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
Kartička 574
Otázka
Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
Odpoveď
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
Kartička 575
Otázka
In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
Odpoveď
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
Kartička 576
Otázka
A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
Odpoveď
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
Kartička 577
Otázka
Health psychology?
Odpoveď
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
Kartička 578
Otázka
Positive psychology?
Odpoveď
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
Kartička 579
Otázka
Stress?
Odpoveď
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
Kartička 580
Otázka
A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
Odpoveď
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
Kartička 581
Otázka
Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
Odpoveď
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
Kartička 582
Otázka
Resilience?
Odpoveď
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
Kartička 583
Otázka
Stressor?
Odpoveď
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
Kartička 584
Otázka
General adaptation syndrome?
Odpoveď
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
Kartička 585
Otázka
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
Odpoveď
Problem-focused coping.
Kartička 586
Otázka
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
Odpoveď
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
Kartička 587
Otázka
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
Odpoveď
Primary appraisal.
Kartička 588
Otázka
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
Odpoveď
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
Kartička 589
Otázka
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
Odpoveď
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
Kartička 590
Otázka
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
Odpoveď
Emotion-focused coping.
Kartička 591
Otázka
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
Odpoveď
Secondary appraisal.
Kartička 592
Otázka
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
Odpoveď
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
Kartička 593
Otázka
Adverse childhood experiences?
Odpoveď
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
Kartička 594
Otázka
How can social support protect health?
Odpoveď
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
Kartička 595
Otázka
Eustress versus distress?
Odpoveď
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
Kartička 596
Otázka
Tend-and-befriend response?
Odpoveď
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
Kartička 597
Otázka
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
Odpoveď
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
Kartička 598
Otázka
Biofeedback?
Odpoveď
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
Kartička 599
Otázka
How does perceived control affect stress?
Odpoveď
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
Kartička 600
Otázka
Psychoneuroimmunology?
Odpoveď
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
Kartička 601
Otázka
Subjective well-being?
Odpoveď
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
Kartička 602
Otázka
Psychological disorder?
Odpoveď
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
Kartička 603
Otázka
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
Odpoveď
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
Kartička 604
Otázka
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
Odpoveď
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
Kartička 605
Otázka
Signature strengths?
Odpoveď
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
Kartička 606
Otázka
Biopsychosocial model?
Odpoveď
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
Kartička 607
Otázka
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
Odpoveď
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
Kartička 608
Otázka
Posttraumatic growth?
Odpoveď
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
Kartička 609
Otázka
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
Odpoveď
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
Kartička 610
Otázka
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
Odpoveď
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
Kartička 611
Otázka
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
Odpoveď
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
Kartička 612
Otázka
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
Odpoveď
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
Kartička 613
Otázka
Biological explanation of disorder?
Odpoveď
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
Kartička 614
Otázka
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
Odpoveď
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
Kartička 615
Otázka
Purpose of the DSM?
Odpoveď
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
Kartička 616
Otázka
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
Odpoveď
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
Kartička 617
Otázka
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
Odpoveď
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
Kartička 618
Otázka
Autism spectrum disorder?
Odpoveď
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
Kartička 619
Otázka
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
Odpoveď
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
Kartička 620
Otázka
Major depressive disorder?
Odpoveď
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
Kartička 621
Otázka
Specific phobia?
Odpoveď
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
Kartička 622
Otázka
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
Odpoveď
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
Kartička 623
Otázka
Dissociative amnesia?
Odpoveď
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
Kartička 624
Otázka
Bipolar I disorder?
Odpoveď
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
Kartička 625
Otázka
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
Odpoveď
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
Kartička 626
Otázka
Anorexia nervosa?
Odpoveď
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
Kartička 627
Otázka
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
Odpoveď
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
Kartička 628
Otázka
Bipolar II disorder?
Odpoveď
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
Kartička 629
Otázka
Purpose of the ICD?
Odpoveď
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
Kartička 630
Otázka
Bulimia nervosa?
Odpoveď
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
Kartička 631
Otázka
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
Odpoveď
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
Kartička 632
Otázka
Ataque de nervios?
Odpoveď
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
Kartička 633
Otázka
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
Odpoveď
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
Kartička 634
Otázka
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
Odpoveď
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
Kartička 635
Otázka
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
Odpoveď
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
Kartička 636
Otázka
Comorbidity?
Odpoveď
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
Kartička 637
Otázka
Humanistic explanation of distress?
Odpoveď
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
Kartička 638
Otázka
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
Odpoveď
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
Kartička 639
Otázka
Stigma around mental disorder?
Odpoveď
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
Kartička 640
Otázka
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
Odpoveď
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
Kartička 641
Otázka
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
Odpoveď
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
Kartička 642
Otázka
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
Odpoveď
Interrater reliability.
Kartička 643
Otázka
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
Odpoveď
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
Kartička 644
Otázka
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
Odpoveď
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
Kartička 645
Otázka
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
Odpoveď
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
Kartička 646
Otázka
Delusion?
Odpoveď
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
Kartička 647
Otázka
Agoraphobia?
Odpoveď
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
Kartička 648
Otázka
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
Odpoveď
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
Kartička 649
Otázka
Eclectic approach to disorder?
Odpoveď
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
Kartička 650
Otázka
Hallucination?
Odpoveď
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
Kartička 651
Otázka
Panic disorder?
Odpoveď
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
Kartička 652
Otázka
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
Odpoveď
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
Kartička 653
Otázka
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
Odpoveď
The diathesis–stress model.
Kartička 654
Otázka
Cluster A personality disorders?
Odpoveď
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
Kartička 655
Otázka
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
Odpoveď
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
Kartička 656
Otázka
Evidence-based treatment?
Odpoveď
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
Kartička 657
Otázka
Therapeutic alliance?
Odpoveď
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
Kartička 658
Otázka
Cultural humility in therapy?
Odpoveď
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
Kartička 659
Otázka
Deinstitutionalization?
Odpoveď
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
Kartička 660
Otázka
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
Odpoveď
Exposure therapy.
Kartička 661
Otázka
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
Odpoveď
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
Kartička 662
Otázka
Four medication categories in the course?
Odpoveď
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
Kartička 663
Otázka
Depressive cognitive triad?
Odpoveď
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
Kartička 664
Otázka
Applied behavior analysis?
Odpoveď
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
Kartička 665
Otázka
Psychosurgery?
Odpoveď
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
Kartička 666
Otázka
Free association?
Odpoveď
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
Kartička 667
Otázka
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
Odpoveď
Cognitive restructuring.
Kartička 668
Otázka
One advantage of group therapy?
Odpoveď
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
Kartička 669
Otázka
Lobotomy?
Odpoveď
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
Kartička 670
Otázka
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
Odpoveď
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
Kartička 671
Otázka
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
Odpoveď
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
Kartička 672
Otázka
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
Odpoveď
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
Kartička 673
Otázka
Social anxiety disorder?
Odpoveď
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
Kartička 674
Otázka
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
Odpoveď
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
Kartička 675
Otázka
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
Odpoveď
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
Kartička 676
Otázka
Dissociative fugue?
Odpoveď
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
Kartička 677
Otázka
Cluster B personality disorders?
Odpoveď
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
Kartička 678
Otázka
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
Odpoveď
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
Kartička 679
Otázka
Catatonia?
Odpoveď
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
Kartička 680
Otázka
Manic episode?
Odpoveď
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
Kartička 681
Otázka
Dissociative identity disorder?
Odpoveď
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
Kartička 682
Otázka
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
Odpoveď
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
Kartička 683
Otázka
Cluster C personality disorders?
Odpoveď
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
Kartička 684
Otázka
Taijin kyofusho?
Odpoveď
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
Kartička 685
Otázka
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
Odpoveď
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
Kartička 686
Otázka
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
Odpoveď
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
Kartička 687
Otázka
Hypomanic episode?
Odpoveď
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
Kartička 688
Otázka
Generalized anxiety disorder?
Odpoveď
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
Kartička 689
Otázka
Hoarding disorder?
Odpoveď
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
Kartička 690
Otázka
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
Odpoveď
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
Kartička 691
Otázka
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
Odpoveď
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
Kartička 692
Otázka
Persistent depressive disorder?
Odpoveď
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
Kartička 693
Otázka
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
Odpoveď
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
Kartička 694
Otázka
Systematic desensitization?
Odpoveď
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
Kartička 695
Otázka
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
Odpoveď
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
Kartička 696
Otázka
Dialectical behavior therapy?
Odpoveď
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
Kartička 697
Otázka
Integrity in therapy ethics?
Odpoveď
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
Kartička 698
Otázka
Aversion therapy?
Odpoveď
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
Kartička 699
Otázka
Tardive dyskinesia?
Odpoveď
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
Kartička 700
Otázka
ECT versus TMS?
Odpoveď
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
Kartička 701
Otázka
Respect for rights and dignity?
Odpoveď
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
Kartička 702
Otázka
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
Odpoveď
A token economy.
Kartička 703
Otázka
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
Odpoveď
Person-centered therapy.
Kartička 704
Otázka
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
Odpoveď
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
Kartička 705
Otázka
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
Odpoveď
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.
705 kartičiek
AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
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