Nature in the nature–nurture question?

Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.

Central nervous system?

The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.

Main role of the spinal cord?

It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.

Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?

7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.

Nurture in the nature–nurture question?

Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.

Peripheral nervous system?

The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.

A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.

Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?

210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.

The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.

Autonomic nervous system?

The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.

Evolutionary perspective on behavior?

It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.

Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?

It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.

Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?

They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.

Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?

A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.

Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.

Somatic nervous system?

The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.

They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.

Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?

An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.

Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?

Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.

Sympathetic nervous system?

The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.

Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?

The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.

They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?

The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.

Parasympathetic nervous system?

The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.

The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.

Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.

Adrenaline's behavioral role?

It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.

Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.

The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.

The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.

Leptin's role in eating?

It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.

Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.

Depolarization during an action potential?

Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.

Dopamine's major psychological functions?

Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.

A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.

A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.

The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.

Serotonin's major psychological functions?

Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.

Glutamate's major psychological functions?

It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.

A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.

It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.

A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.

Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.

A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.

All-or-none principle?

A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.

Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?

Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.

GABA's major psychological function?

It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.

Oxytocin's behavioral role?

It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.

A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.

AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review

Review all five AP® Psychology units with 705 independently written cards covering concepts, scenarios, research methods, data interpretation, and evidence-based reasoning.

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Thẻ: 705 thẻ
Phiên bản: 3
Xuất bản: 25 tháng 8, 2026
Cập nhật lần cuối: 10 tháng 9, 2026
Giấy phép: Common knowledge · CC0 1.0
Ngôn ngữ người học: en
Chủ đề: Psychology
Cấp độ: AP Psychology
Nhãn: psychology-course-review, psychology-course-review-u1, psychology-course-review-u2, psychology-course-review-u3, psychology-course-review-u4, psychology-course-review-u5

Bộ thẻ tương tự

Về bộ thẻ này

Review all five units in the AP® Psychology course framework with 705 independently written English flashcards. The deck covers Biological Bases of Behavior, Cognition, Development and Learning, Social Psychology and Personality, and Mental and Physical Health. It supports all four science practices: Concept Application, Research Methods and Design, Data Interpretation, and Argumentation.

What the cards ask you to retrieve

Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.

The order follows Units 1–5, keeps related material within the current or next topic, and introduces prerequisites and chronological steps first. Definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are separated by at least three unrelated cards. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences remain adjacent only when that progression helps learning.

What's deliberately left out

The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or use long essay prompts. It also leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.

Check the official AP Psychology course page for authoritative requirements. Psychological facts and the course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, ordering, and inherited generated cover, to the extent those rights exist.

This is an independent, unofficial study aid. It isn't affiliated with, endorsed by, sponsored by, or official material from College Board or the AP Program. AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this product. No College Board examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or trade dress were copied or adapted.

Thẻ trong bộ này

Thẻ 1
Câu hỏi
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
Câu trả lời
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
Thẻ 2
Câu hỏi
Central nervous system?
Câu trả lời
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
Thẻ 3
Câu hỏi
Main role of the spinal cord?
Câu trả lời
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
Thẻ 4
Câu hỏi
Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?
Câu trả lời
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
Thẻ 5
Câu hỏi
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
Câu trả lời
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
Thẻ 6
Câu hỏi
Peripheral nervous system?
Câu trả lời
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
Thẻ 7
Câu hỏi
Reflex arc?
Câu trả lời
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
Thẻ 8
Câu hỏi
Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?
Câu trả lời
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
Thẻ 9
Câu hỏi
Heritability?
Câu trả lời
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
Thẻ 10
Câu hỏi
Autonomic nervous system?
Câu trả lời
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
Thẻ 11
Câu hỏi
Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
Câu trả lời
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
Thẻ 12
Câu hỏi
Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
Câu trả lời
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
Thẻ 13
Câu hỏi
Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
Câu trả lời
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
Thẻ 14
Câu hỏi
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
Câu trả lời
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
Thẻ 15
Câu hỏi
Natural selection?
Câu trả lời
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
Thẻ 16
Câu hỏi
Somatic nervous system?
Câu trả lời
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
Thẻ 17
Câu hỏi
Sensory neurons?
Câu trả lời
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
Thẻ 18
Câu hỏi
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
Câu trả lời
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
Thẻ 19
Câu hỏi
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
Câu trả lời
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
Thẻ 20
Câu hỏi
Sympathetic nervous system?
Câu trả lời
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
Thẻ 21
Câu hỏi
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
Câu trả lời
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
Thẻ 22
Câu hỏi
Motor neurons?
Câu trả lời
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
Thẻ 23
Câu hỏi
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
Câu trả lời
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
Thẻ 24
Câu hỏi
Parasympathetic nervous system?
Câu trả lời
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
Thẻ 25
Câu hỏi
Resting potential?
Câu trả lời
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
Thẻ 26
Câu hỏi
Interneurons?
Câu trả lời
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
Thẻ 27
Câu hỏi
Adrenaline's behavioral role?
Câu trả lời
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
Thẻ 28
Câu hỏi
Frontal lobes?
Câu trả lời
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
Thẻ 29
Câu hỏi
Neural threshold?
Câu trả lời
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
Thẻ 30
Câu hỏi
Corpus callosum?
Câu trả lời
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
Thẻ 31
Câu hỏi
Leptin's role in eating?
Câu trả lời
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
Thẻ 32
Câu hỏi
Temporal lobes?
Câu trả lời
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
Thẻ 33
Câu hỏi
Depolarization during an action potential?
Câu trả lời
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
Thẻ 34
Câu hỏi
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
Câu trả lời
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
Thẻ 35
Câu hỏi
Ghrelin's role in eating?
Câu trả lời
It helps stimulate hunger.
Thẻ 36
Câu hỏi
Drug agonist?
Câu trả lời
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
Thẻ 37
Câu hỏi
Action potential?
Câu trả lời
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
Thẻ 38
Câu hỏi
Reuptake?
Câu trả lời
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
Thẻ 39
Câu hỏi
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
Câu trả lời
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
Thẻ 40
Câu hỏi
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
Câu trả lời
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
Thẻ 41
Câu hỏi
Refractory period?
Câu trả lời
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
Thẻ 42
Câu hỏi
Melatonin's role?
Câu trả lời
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
Thẻ 43
Câu hỏi
Drug antagonist?
Câu trả lời
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
Thẻ 44
Câu hỏi
Stimulants?
Câu trả lời
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
Thẻ 45
Câu hỏi
Drug tolerance?
Câu trả lời
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
Thẻ 46
Câu hỏi
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Câu trả lời
Multiple sclerosis.
Thẻ 47
Câu hỏi
All-or-none principle?
Câu trả lời
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
Thẻ 48
Câu hỏi
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
Câu trả lời
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
Thẻ 49
Câu hỏi
GABA's major psychological function?
Câu trả lời
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
Thẻ 50
Câu hỏi
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
Câu trả lời
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
Thẻ 51
Câu hỏi
Reuptake inhibitor?
Câu trả lời
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
Thẻ 52
Câu hỏi
Depressants?
Câu trả lời
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
Thẻ 53
Câu hỏi
Drug withdrawal?
Câu trả lời
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
Thẻ 54
Câu hỏi
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Câu trả lời
Myasthenia gravis.
Thẻ 55
Câu hỏi
Glial cells?
Câu trả lời
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
Thẻ 56
Câu hỏi
Endorphins?
Câu trả lời
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
Thẻ 57
Câu hỏi
Substance P?
Câu trả lời
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
Thẻ 58
Câu hỏi
Acetylcholine's major functions?
Câu trả lời
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
Thẻ 59
Câu hỏi
Opioids?
Câu trả lời
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
Thẻ 60
Câu hỏi
Hallucinogens?
Câu trả lời
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
Thẻ 61
Câu hỏi
Addiction?
Câu trả lời
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
Thẻ 62
Câu hỏi
Parietal lobes?
Câu trả lời
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
Thẻ 63
Câu hỏi
Consciousness?
Câu trả lời
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
Thẻ 64
Câu hỏi
Circadian rhythm?
Câu trả lời
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
Thẻ 65
Câu hỏi
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
Câu trả lời
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
Thẻ 66
Câu hỏi
Occipital lobes?
Câu trả lời
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
Thẻ 67
Câu hỏi
What does split-brain research reveal?
Câu trả lời
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
Thẻ 68
Câu hỏi
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
Câu trả lời
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
Thẻ 69
Câu hỏi
NREM-1 sleep?
Câu trả lời
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
Thẻ 70
Câu hỏi
Motor cortex?
Câu trả lời
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
Thẻ 71
Câu hỏi
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
Câu trả lời
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
Thẻ 72
Câu hỏi
Brainstem's core function?
Câu trả lời
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
Thẻ 73
Câu hỏi
NREM-2 sleep?
Câu trả lời
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
Thẻ 74
Câu hỏi
Somatosensory cortex?
Câu trả lời
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
Thẻ 75
Câu hỏi
Medulla's main functions?
Câu trả lời
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Thẻ 76
Câu hỏi
Reticular activating system?
Câu trả lời
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
Thẻ 77
Câu hỏi
NREM-3 sleep?
Câu trả lời
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
Thẻ 78
Câu hỏi
Cerebellum's main functions?
Câu trả lời
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
Thẻ 79
Câu hỏi
Thalamus?
Câu trả lời
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
Thẻ 80
Câu hỏi
Hypothalamus?
Câu trả lời
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
Thẻ 81
Câu hỏi
REM sleep?
Câu trả lời
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
Thẻ 82
Câu hỏi
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
Câu trả lời
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
Thẻ 83
Câu hỏi
Amygdala?
Câu trả lời
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
Thẻ 84
Câu hỏi
Hippocampus?
Câu trả lời
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
Thẻ 85
Câu hỏi
How does sleep change across a typical night?
Câu trả lời
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
Thẻ 86
Câu hỏi
Contralateral brain control?
Câu trả lời
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
Thẻ 87
Câu hỏi
What does an EEG measure?
Câu trả lời
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
Thẻ 88
Câu hỏi
Reward-center activity?
Câu trả lời
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
Thẻ 89
Câu hỏi
Neuroplasticity?
Câu trả lời
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
Thẻ 90
Câu hỏi
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
Câu trả lời
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
Thẻ 91
Câu hỏi
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
Câu trả lời
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
Thẻ 92
Câu hỏi
Insomnia?
Câu trả lời
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
Thẻ 93
Câu hỏi
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
Câu trả lời
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
Thẻ 94
Câu hỏi
Absolute threshold?
Câu trả lời
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
Thẻ 95
Câu hỏi
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
Câu trả lời
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
Thẻ 96
Câu hỏi
Narcolepsy?
Câu trả lời
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
Thẻ 97
Câu hỏi
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
Câu trả lời
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
Thẻ 98
Câu hỏi
Difference threshold?
Câu trả lời
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
Thẻ 99
Câu hỏi
Consolidation view of dreams?
Câu trả lời
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
Thẻ 100
Câu hỏi
REM sleep behavior disorder?
Câu trả lời
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
Thẻ 101
Câu hỏi
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
Câu trả lời
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
Thẻ 102
Câu hỏi
Weber's law?
Câu trả lời
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
Thẻ 103
Câu hỏi
Two supported functions of sleep?
Câu trả lời
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
Thẻ 104
Câu hỏi
Sleep apnea?
Câu trả lời
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
Thẻ 105
Câu hỏi
REM rebound?
Câu trả lời
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
Thẻ 106
Câu hỏi
Signal detection theory?
Câu trả lời
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
Thẻ 107
Câu hỏi
Sensory transduction?
Câu trả lời
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
Thẻ 108
Câu hỏi
Vestibular sense?
Câu trả lời
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
Thẻ 109
Câu hỏi
Somnambulism?
Câu trả lời
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
Thẻ 110
Câu hỏi
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
Câu trả lời
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
Thẻ 111
Câu hỏi
What begins visual transduction?
Câu trả lời
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
Thẻ 112
Câu hỏi
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
Câu trả lời
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
Thẻ 113
Câu hỏi
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
Câu trả lời
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
Thẻ 114
Câu hỏi
Accommodation in vision?
Câu trả lời
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
Thẻ 115
Câu hỏi
Cones?
Câu trả lời
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
Thẻ 116
Câu hỏi
What begins auditory transduction?
Câu trả lời
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
Thẻ 117
Câu hỏi
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
Câu trả lời
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
Thẻ 118
Câu hỏi
How is smell unusual among the senses?
Câu trả lời
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
Thẻ 119
Câu hỏi
Kinesthesia?
Câu trả lời
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
Thẻ 120
Câu hỏi
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
Câu trả lời
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
Thẻ 121
Câu hỏi
Nearsightedness?
Câu trả lời
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
Thẻ 122
Câu hỏi
Pheromones?
Câu trả lời
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
Thẻ 123
Câu hỏi
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
Câu trả lời
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
Thẻ 124
Câu hỏi
Volley theory of pitch?
Câu trả lời
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
Thẻ 125
Câu hỏi
Farsightedness?
Câu trả lời
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
Thẻ 126
Câu hỏi
Six taste qualities named in the course?
Câu trả lời
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
Thẻ 127
Câu hỏi
Phantom-limb sensation?
Câu trả lời
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
Thẻ 128
Câu hỏi
Sensory interaction?
Câu trả lời
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
Thẻ 129
Câu hỏi
What causes most color-vision deficiency?
Câu trả lời
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
Thẻ 130
Câu hỏi
Prosopagnosia?
Câu trả lời
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
Thẻ 131
Câu hỏi
Rods?
Câu trả lời
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
Thẻ 132
Câu hỏi
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
Câu trả lời
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
Thẻ 133
Câu hỏi
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
Câu trả lời
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
Thẻ 134
Câu hỏi
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
Câu trả lời
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
Thẻ 135
Câu hỏi
What do the semicircular canals detect?
Câu trả lời
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
Thẻ 136
Câu hỏi
Synesthesia?
Câu trả lời
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
Thẻ 137
Câu hỏi
Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
Câu trả lời
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
Thẻ 138
Câu hỏi
Blindsight?
Câu trả lời
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
Thẻ 139
Câu hỏi
Sensory adaptation?
Câu trả lời
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
Thẻ 140
Câu hỏi
Gate-control view of pain?
Câu trả lời
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
Thẻ 141
Câu hỏi
Bottom-up processing?
Câu trả lời
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
Thẻ 142
Câu hỏi
Concept?
Câu trả lời
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Thẻ 143
Câu hỏi
Fixation in problem solving?
Câu trả lời
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
Thẻ 144
Câu hỏi
Algorithm?
Câu trả lời
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
Thẻ 145
Câu hỏi
Top-down processing?
Câu trả lời
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
Thẻ 146
Câu hỏi
Confirmation bias?
Câu trả lời
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
Thẻ 147
Câu hỏi
Retinal disparity?
Câu trả lời
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
Thẻ 148
Câu hỏi
Heuristic?
Câu trả lời
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
Thẻ 149
Câu hỏi
Selective attention?
Câu trả lời
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
Thẻ 150
Câu hỏi
Figure–ground organization?
Câu trả lời
Separating the object of attention from its background.
Thẻ 151
Câu hỏi
Convergence as a depth cue?
Câu trả lời
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
Thẻ 152
Câu hỏi
Representativeness heuristic?
Câu trả lời
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
Thẻ 153
Câu hỏi
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
Câu trả lời
Inattentional blindness.
Thẻ 154
Câu hỏi
Gestalt proximity principle?
Câu trả lời
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
Thẻ 155
Câu hỏi
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
Câu trả lời
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
Thẻ 156
Câu hỏi
Cocktail-party effect?
Câu trả lời
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
Thẻ 157
Câu hỏi
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
Câu trả lời
Change blindness.
Thẻ 158
Câu hỏi
Gestalt similarity principle?
Câu trả lời
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
Thẻ 159
Câu hỏi
Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
Câu trả lời
Linear perspective.
Thẻ 160
Câu hỏi
Perceptual constancy?
Câu trả lời
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
Thẻ 161
Câu hỏi
Perceptual set?
Câu trả lời
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
Thẻ 162
Câu hỏi
Gestalt closure principle?
Câu trả lời
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
Thẻ 163
Câu hỏi
One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
Câu trả lời
The blocking object, using interposition.
Thẻ 164
Câu hỏi
Apparent motion?
Câu trả lời
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
Thẻ 165
Câu hỏi
Availability heuristic?
Câu trả lời
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
Thẻ 166
Câu hỏi
Divergent thinking?
Câu trả lời
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
Thẻ 167
Câu hỏi
A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
Câu trả lời
Relative clarity.
Thẻ 168
Câu hỏi
Prototype?
Câu trả lời
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
Thẻ 169
Câu hỏi
Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
Câu trả lời
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
Thẻ 170
Câu hỏi
Convergent thinking?
Câu trả lời
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
Thẻ 171
Câu hỏi
A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
Câu trả lời
Texture gradient.
Thẻ 172
Câu hỏi
Belief perseverance?
Câu trả lời
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
Thẻ 173
Câu hỏi
Explicit memory?
Câu trả lời
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
Thẻ 174
Câu hỏi
Three stores in the multi-store model?
Câu trả lời
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Thẻ 175
Câu hỏi
Seeing an object only in its usual role?
Câu trả lời
Functional fixedness.
Thẻ 176
Câu hỏi
Mental set?
Câu trả lời
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
Thẻ 177
Câu hỏi
Episodic memory?
Câu trả lời
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
Thẻ 178
Câu hỏi
Working memory?
Câu trả lời
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
Thẻ 179
Câu hỏi
Insight?
Câu trả lời
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Thẻ 180
Câu hỏi
Framing effect?
Câu trả lời
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
Thẻ 181
Câu hỏi
Implicit memory?
Câu trả lời
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
Thẻ 182
Câu hỏi
Overconfidence bias?
Câu trả lời
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
Thẻ 183
Câu hỏi
Anchoring bias?
Câu trả lời
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
Thẻ 184
Câu hỏi
Schema in thinking?
Câu trả lời
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
Thẻ 185
Câu hỏi
Procedural memory?
Câu trả lời
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
Thẻ 186
Câu hỏi
Gambler's fallacy?
Câu trả lời
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
Thẻ 187
Câu hỏi
Sunk-cost fallacy?
Câu trả lời
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
Thẻ 188
Câu hỏi
Executive functions?
Câu trả lời
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
Thẻ 189
Câu hỏi
How can priming affect judgment?
Câu trả lời
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
Thẻ 190
Câu hỏi
Central executive in working memory?
Câu trả lời
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
Thẻ 191
Câu hỏi
Serial-position effect?
Câu trả lời
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
Thẻ 192
Câu hỏi
Semantic memory?
Câu trả lời
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
Thẻ 193
Câu hỏi
Levels-of-processing principle?
Câu trả lời
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
Thẻ 194
Câu hỏi
Automatic processing?
Câu trả lời
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
Thẻ 195
Câu hỏi
Maintenance rehearsal?
Câu trả lời
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
Thẻ 196
Câu hỏi
Prospective memory?
Câu trả lời
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
Thẻ 197
Câu hỏi
Primacy effect?
Câu trả lời
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
Thẻ 198
Câu hỏi
Long-term memory?
Câu trả lời
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
Thẻ 199
Câu hỏi
Highly superior autobiographical memory?
Câu trả lời
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
Thẻ 200
Câu hỏi
Effortful processing?
Câu trả lời
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
Thẻ 201
Câu hỏi
Elaborative rehearsal?
Câu trả lời
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
Thẻ 202
Câu hỏi
Memory consolidation?
Câu trả lời
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
Thẻ 203
Câu hỏi
Recency effect?
Câu trả lời
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
Thẻ 204
Câu hỏi
Spacing effect?
Câu trả lời
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
Thẻ 205
Câu hỏi
Testing effect?
Câu trả lời
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
Thẻ 206
Câu hỏi
Chunking?
Câu trả lời
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
Thẻ 207
Câu hỏi
Mnemonic?
Câu trả lời
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
Thẻ 208
Câu hỏi
Why organize material into a hierarchy?
Câu trả lời
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
Thẻ 209
Câu hỏi
How can a schema help encoding?
Câu trả lời
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
Thẻ 210
Câu hỏi
Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
Câu trả lời
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
Thẻ 211
Câu hỏi
Iconic memory?
Câu trả lời
A very brief visual sensory memory.
Thẻ 212
Câu hỏi
Recall?
Câu trả lời
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
Thẻ 213
Câu hỏi
Retrieval cue?
Câu trả lời
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
Thẻ 214
Câu hỏi
Encoding-specificity principle?
Câu trả lời
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
Thẻ 215
Câu hỏi
Context-dependent memory?
Câu trả lời
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
Thẻ 216
Câu hỏi
Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
Câu trả lời
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
Thẻ 217
Câu hỏi
Echoic memory?
Câu trả lời
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
Thẻ 218
Câu hỏi
Anterograde amnesia?
Câu trả lời
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
Thẻ 219
Câu hỏi
Phonological loop?
Câu trả lời
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
Thẻ 220
Câu hỏi
Cerebellum's memory role?
Câu trả lời
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
Thẻ 221
Câu hỏi
Why is short-term memory described as limited?
Câu trả lời
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
Thẻ 222
Câu hỏi
Retrograde amnesia?
Câu trả lời
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
Thẻ 223
Câu hỏi
Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
Câu trả lời
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
Thẻ 224
Câu hỏi
How can the amygdala affect memory?
Câu trả lời
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
Thẻ 225
Câu hỏi
Visuospatial sketchpad?
Câu trả lời
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
Thẻ 226
Câu hỏi
Long-term potentiation?
Câu trả lời
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
Thẻ 227
Câu hỏi
Infantile amnesia?
Câu trả lời
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
Thẻ 228
Câu hỏi
Alzheimer's disease?
Câu trả lời
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
Thẻ 229
Câu hỏi
Scores are 2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?
Câu trả lời
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because 9 - 2 = 7.
Thẻ 230
Câu hỏi
Recognition?
Câu trả lời
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
Thẻ 231
Câu hỏi
Why is memory called reconstructive?
Câu trả lời
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
Thẻ 232
Câu hỏi
Storage decay?
Câu trả lời
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
Thẻ 233
Câu hỏi
State-dependent memory?
Câu trả lời
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
Thẻ 234
Câu hỏi
Relearning?
Câu trả lời
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
Thẻ 235
Câu hỏi
Misinformation effect?
Câu trả lời
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
Thẻ 236
Câu hỏi
A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
Câu trả lời
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
Thẻ 237
Câu hỏi
Mood-congruent memory?
Câu trả lời
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
Thẻ 238
Câu hỏi
Priming?
Câu trả lời
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
Thẻ 239
Câu hỏi
Tip-of-the-tongue state?
Câu trả lời
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
Thẻ 240
Câu hỏi
Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
Câu trả lời
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
Thẻ 241
Câu hỏi
Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
Câu trả lời
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
Thẻ 242
Câu hỏi
Metacognition?
Câu trả lời
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
Thẻ 243
Câu hỏi
Source amnesia?
Câu trả lời
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
Thẻ 244
Câu hỏi
Test standardization?
Câu trả lời
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
Thẻ 245
Câu hỏi
Reliability?
Câu trả lời
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
Thẻ 246
Câu hỏi
Stereotype threat?
Câu trả lời
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
Thẻ 247
Câu hỏi
General intelligence, or g?
Câu trả lời
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
Thẻ 248
Câu hỏi
Encoding failure?
Câu trả lời
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
Thẻ 249
Câu hỏi
Validity?
Câu trả lời
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
Thẻ 250
Câu hỏi
Proactive interference?
Câu trả lời
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
Thẻ 251
Câu hỏi
Imagination inflation?
Câu trả lời
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
Thẻ 252
Câu hỏi
A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
Câu trả lời
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
Thẻ 253
Câu hỏi
Retrieval failure?
Câu trả lời
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
Thẻ 254
Câu hỏi
Retroactive interference?
Câu trả lời
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
Thẻ 255
Câu hỏi
A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
Câu trả lời
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
Thẻ 256
Câu hỏi
Repression in psychodynamic theory?
Câu trả lời
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
Thẻ 257
Câu hỏi
Flashbulb memory?
Câu trả lời
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
Thẻ 258
Câu hỏi
A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
Câu trả lời
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
Thẻ 259
Câu hỏi
A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
Câu trả lời
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
Thẻ 260
Câu hỏi
Stereotype lift?
Câu trả lời
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
Thẻ 261
Câu hỏi
Achievement test?
Câu trả lời
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
Thẻ 262
Câu hỏi
Construct validity?
Câu trả lời
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
Thẻ 263
Câu hỏi
Test–retest reliability?
Câu trả lời
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
Thẻ 264
Câu hỏi
Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
Câu trả lời
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
Thẻ 265
Câu hỏi
Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
Câu trả lời
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
Thẻ 266
Câu hỏi
Aptitude test?
Câu trả lời
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
Thẻ 267
Câu hỏi
Traditional IQ formula?
Câu trả lời
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
Thẻ 268
Câu hỏi
Predictive validity?
Câu trả lời
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
Thẻ 269
Câu hỏi
What does a normal score distribution look like?
Câu trả lời
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
Thẻ 270
Câu hỏi
Split-half reliability?
Câu trả lời
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
Thẻ 271
Câu hỏi
Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
Câu trả lời
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
Thẻ 272
Câu hỏi
Flynn effect?
Câu trả lời
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
Thẻ 273
Câu hỏi
A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
Câu trả lời
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
Thẻ 274
Câu hỏi
Continuous versus stage development?
Câu trả lời
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
Thẻ 275
Câu hỏi
How can prenatal environment affect later development?
Câu trả lời
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
Thẻ 276
Câu hỏi
Teratogen?
Câu trả lời
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
Thẻ 277
Câu hỏi
Maturation?
Câu trả lời
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
Thẻ 278
Câu hỏi
Stability–change question in development?
Câu trả lời
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
Thẻ 279
Câu hỏi
A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
Câu trả lời
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
Thẻ 280
Câu hỏi
Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
Câu trả lời
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
Thẻ 281
Câu hỏi
Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
Câu trả lời
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
Thẻ 282
Câu hỏi
Fine versus gross motor skills?
Câu trả lời
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
Thẻ 283
Câu hỏi
Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
Câu trả lời
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
Thẻ 284
Câu hỏi
What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
Câu trả lời
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
Thẻ 285
Câu hỏi
Puberty?
Câu trả lời
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
Thẻ 286
Câu hỏi
Sensitive period?
Câu trả lời
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
Thẻ 287
Câu hỏi
What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
Câu trả lời
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
Thẻ 288
Câu hỏi
Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
Câu trả lời
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
Thẻ 289
Câu hỏi
Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
Câu trả lời
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
Thẻ 290
Câu hỏi
Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
Câu trả lời
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
Thẻ 291
Câu hỏi
Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
Câu trả lời
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
Thẻ 292
Câu hỏi
Menarche?
Câu trả lời
The first menstrual period.
Thẻ 293
Câu hỏi
Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
Câu trả lời
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
Thẻ 294
Câu hỏi
About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
Câu trả lời
About 68%.
Thẻ 295
Câu hỏi
A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
Câu trả lời
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
Thẻ 296
Câu hỏi
Spermarche?
Câu trả lời
The first ejaculation.
Thẻ 297
Câu hỏi
Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
Câu trả lời
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
Thẻ 298
Câu hỏi
Imprinting?
Câu trả lời
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
Thẻ 299
Câu hỏi
Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
Câu trả lời
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
Thẻ 300
Câu hỏi
Menopause?
Câu trả lời
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
Thẻ 301
Câu hỏi
Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
Câu trả lời
Naturalistic observation.
Thẻ 302
Câu hỏi
How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
Câu trả lời
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
Thẻ 303
Câu hỏi
Gender identity?
Câu trả lời
A person's internal sense of their gender.
Thẻ 304
Câu hỏi
Gender role?
Câu trả lời
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
Thẻ 305
Câu hỏi
Sex versus gender?
Câu trả lời
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
Thẻ 306
Câu hỏi
Common sensory change in later adulthood?
Câu trả lời
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
Thẻ 307
Câu hỏi
Sexual orientation?
Câu trả lời
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
Thẻ 308
Câu hỏi
Gender schema?
Câu trả lời
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
Thẻ 309
Câu hỏi
Best broad view of gender development?
Câu trả lời
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
Thẻ 310
Câu hỏi
Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
Câu trả lời
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
Thẻ 311
Câu hỏi
Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
Câu trả lời
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
Thẻ 312
Câu hỏi
Schema in cognitive development?
Câu trả lời
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
Thẻ 313
Câu hỏi
Sensorimotor stage?
Câu trả lời
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
Thẻ 314
Câu hỏi
Preoperational stage?
Câu trả lời
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
Thẻ 315
Câu hỏi
Assimilation?
Câu trả lời
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
Thẻ 316
Câu hỏi
A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
Câu trả lời
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
Thẻ 317
Câu hỏi
Animism in preoperational thought?
Câu trả lời
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
Thẻ 318
Câu hỏi
Concrete operational stage?
Câu trả lời
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
Thẻ 319
Câu hỏi
Accommodation?
Câu trả lời
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
Thẻ 320
Câu hỏi
Reversibility in cognitive development?
Câu trả lời
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
Thẻ 321
Câu hỏi
How can social learning shape gender expression?
Câu trả lời
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
Thẻ 322
Câu hỏi
A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
Câu trả lời
Assimilation.
Thẻ 323
Câu hỏi
Language?
Câu trả lời
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
Thẻ 324
Câu hỏi
Cooing stage?
Câu trả lời
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
Thẻ 325
Câu hỏi
Babbling stage?
Câu trả lời
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
Thẻ 326
Câu hỏi
One-word stage?
Câu trả lời
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
Thẻ 327
Câu hỏi
Grammar?
Câu trả lời
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
Thẻ 328
Câu hỏi
A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
Câu trả lời
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
Thẻ 329
Câu hỏi
Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
Câu trả lời
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
Thẻ 330
Câu hỏi
A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
Câu trả lời
Accommodation.
Thẻ 331
Câu hỏi
A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
Câu trả lời
Scaffolding.
Thẻ 332
Câu hỏi
A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
Câu trả lời
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
Thẻ 333
Câu hỏi
Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
Câu trả lời
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
Thẻ 334
Câu hỏi
An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
Câu trả lời
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
Thẻ 335
Câu hỏi
Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
Câu trả lời
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
Thẻ 336
Câu hỏi
Formal operational stage?
Câu trả lời
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
Thẻ 337
Câu hỏi
Dementia?
Câu trả lời
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
Thẻ 338
Câu hỏi
Phoneme?
Câu trả lời
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
Thẻ 339
Câu hỏi
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
Câu trả lời
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
Thẻ 340
Câu hỏi
Temperament?
Câu trả lời
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
Thẻ 341
Câu hỏi
Attachment?
Câu trả lời
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
Thẻ 342
Câu hỏi
Erikson's infancy conflict?
Câu trả lời
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
Thẻ 343
Câu hỏi
Microsystem?
Câu trả lời
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
Thẻ 344
Câu hỏi
Erikson's toddler conflict?
Câu trả lời
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
Thẻ 345
Câu hỏi
Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
Câu trả lời
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
Thẻ 346
Câu hỏi
Erikson's school-age conflict?
Câu trả lời
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
Thẻ 347
Câu hỏi
Mesosystem?
Câu trả lời
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
Thẻ 348
Câu hỏi
Erikson's adolescent conflict?
Câu trả lời
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
Thẻ 349
Câu hỏi
Erikson's young-adult conflict?
Câu trả lời
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
Thẻ 350
Câu hỏi
Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
Câu trả lời
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
Thẻ 351
Câu hỏi
Exosystem?
Câu trả lời
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
Thẻ 352
Câu hỏi
Morpheme?
Câu trả lời
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
Thẻ 353
Câu hỏi
Telegraphic speech?
Câu trả lời
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
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Thẻ 354
Câu hỏi
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
Câu trả lời
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
Thẻ 355
Câu hỏi
Macrosystem?
Câu trả lời
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
Thẻ 356
Câu hỏi
Semantics?
Câu trả lời
The meanings of words and sentences.
Thẻ 357
Câu hỏi
A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
Câu trả lời
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
Thẻ 358
Câu hỏi
What does a sensitive period for language imply?
Câu trả lời
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
Thẻ 359
Câu hỏi
Does language completely determine thought?
Câu trả lời
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
Thẻ 360
Câu hỏi
Syntax?
Câu trả lời
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
Thẻ 361
Câu hỏi
A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
Câu trả lời
Secure attachment.
Thẻ 362
Câu hỏi
How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
Câu trả lời
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
Thẻ 363
Câu hỏi
Authoritative parenting?
Câu trả lời
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
Thẻ 364
Câu hỏi
Identity achievement?
Câu trả lời
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
Thẻ 365
Câu hỏi
Avoidant attachment pattern?
Câu trả lời
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
Thẻ 366
Câu hỏi
Classical conditioning?
Câu trả lời
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
Thẻ 367
Câu hỏi
Unconditioned stimulus?
Câu trả lời
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
Thẻ 368
Câu hỏi
Unconditioned response?
Câu trả lời
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
Thẻ 369
Câu hỏi
Conditioned stimulus?
Câu trả lời
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
Thẻ 370
Câu hỏi
Conditioned response?
Câu trả lời
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Thẻ 371
Câu hỏi
Acquisition in classical conditioning?
Câu trả lời
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Thẻ 372
Câu hỏi
During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
Câu trả lời
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
Thẻ 373
Câu hỏi
Authoritarian parenting?
Câu trả lời
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
Thẻ 374
Câu hỏi
Identity diffusion?
Câu trả lời
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
Thẻ 375
Câu hỏi
Extinction in classical conditioning?
Câu trả lời
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
Thẻ 376
Câu hỏi
Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
Câu trả lời
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
Thẻ 377
Câu hỏi
Permissive parenting?
Câu trả lời
High warmth with few demands or limits.
Thẻ 378
Câu hỏi
Parallel play?
Câu trả lời
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
Thẻ 379
Câu hỏi
Imaginary audience?
Câu trả lời
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
Thẻ 380
Câu hỏi
Identity foreclosure?
Câu trả lời
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
Thẻ 381
Câu hỏi
Disorganized attachment pattern?
Câu trả lời
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
Thẻ 382
Câu hỏi
Neglectful parenting?
Câu trả lời
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
Thẻ 383
Câu hỏi
Chronosystem?
Câu trả lời
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
Thẻ 384
Câu hỏi
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
Câu trả lời
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
Thẻ 385
Câu hỏi
Personal fable?
Câu trả lời
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
Thẻ 386
Câu hỏi
Identity moratorium?
Câu trả lời
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
Thẻ 387
Câu hỏi
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
Câu trả lời
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
Thẻ 388
Câu hỏi
Separation anxiety in infancy?
Câu trả lời
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
Thẻ 389
Câu hỏi
What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
Câu trả lời
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
Thẻ 390
Câu hỏi
Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
Câu trả lời
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
Thẻ 391
Câu hỏi
Emerging adulthood?
Câu trả lời
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
Thẻ 392
Câu hỏi
Social clock?
Câu trả lời
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
Thẻ 393
Câu hỏi
Erikson's later-adult conflict?
Câu trả lời
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
Thẻ 394
Câu hỏi
Possible selves?
Câu trả lời
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
Thẻ 395
Câu hỏi
Stimulus generalization?
Câu trả lời
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
Thẻ 396
Câu hỏi
Operant conditioning?
Câu trả lời
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
Thẻ 397
Câu hỏi
Law of effect?
Câu trả lời
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
Thẻ 398
Câu hỏi
Spontaneous recovery?
Câu trả lời
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
Thẻ 399
Câu hỏi
Stimulus discrimination?
Câu trả lời
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
Thẻ 400
Câu hỏi
Reinforcement?
Câu trả lời
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
Thẻ 401
Câu hỏi
Higher-order conditioning?
Câu trả lời
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
Thẻ 402
Câu hỏi
Counterconditioning?
Câu trả lời
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
Thẻ 403
Câu hỏi
Habituation?
Câu trả lời
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
Thẻ 404
Câu hỏi
Punishment?
Câu trả lời
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
Thẻ 405
Câu hỏi
Partial reinforcement?
Câu trả lời
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
Thẻ 406
Câu hỏi
Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
Câu trả lời
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
Thẻ 407
Câu hỏi
Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
Câu trả lời
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
Thẻ 408
Câu hỏi
Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
Câu trả lời
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
Thẻ 409
Câu hỏi
Fixed-ratio schedule?
Câu trả lời
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
Thẻ 410
Câu hỏi
Observational learning?
Câu trả lời
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
Thẻ 411
Câu hỏi
A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
Câu trả lời
Positive reinforcement.
Thẻ 412
Câu hỏi
Primary reinforcer?
Câu trả lời
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
Thẻ 413
Câu hỏi
Variable-ratio schedule?
Câu trả lời
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
Thẻ 414
Câu hỏi
Modeling?
Câu trả lời
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
Thẻ 415
Câu hỏi
Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
Câu trả lời
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
Thẻ 416
Câu hỏi
Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
Câu trả lời
Negative reinforcement.
Thẻ 417
Câu hỏi
Conditioned reinforcer?
Câu trả lời
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
Thẻ 418
Câu hỏi
A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
Câu trả lời
Vicarious reinforcement.
Thẻ 419
Câu hỏi
Fixed-interval schedule?
Câu trả lời
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
Thẻ 420
Câu hỏi
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
Câu trả lời
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
Thẻ 421
Câu hỏi
A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
Câu trả lời
Positive punishment.
Thẻ 422
Câu hỏi
Shaping?
Câu trả lời
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
Thẻ 423
Câu hỏi
Extinction in operant conditioning?
Câu trả lời
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
Thẻ 424
Câu hỏi
Variable-interval schedule?
Câu trả lời
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
Thẻ 425
Câu hỏi
A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
Câu trả lời
Negative punishment.
Thẻ 426
Câu hỏi
Learned helplessness?
Câu trả lời
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
Thẻ 427
Câu hỏi
Continuous reinforcement?
Câu trả lời
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
Thẻ 428
Câu hỏi
A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
Câu trả lời
A fixed-interval schedule.
Thẻ 429
Câu hỏi
Discriminative stimulus?
Câu trả lời
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
Thẻ 430
Câu hỏi
Operant generalization versus discrimination?
Câu trả lời
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
Thẻ 431
Câu hỏi
Instinctive drift?
Câu trả lời
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
Thẻ 432
Câu hỏi
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
Câu trả lời
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
Thẻ 433
Câu hỏi
How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
Câu trả lời
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
Thẻ 434
Câu hỏi
How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
Câu trả lời
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
Thẻ 435
Câu hỏi
Vicarious conditioning?
Câu trả lời
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
Thẻ 436
Câu hỏi
A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
Câu trả lời
A variable-interval schedule.
Thẻ 437
Câu hỏi
Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
Câu trả lời
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
Thẻ 438
Câu hỏi
Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
Câu trả lời
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
Thẻ 439
Câu hỏi
Latent learning?
Câu trả lời
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
Thẻ 440
Câu hỏi
Cognitive map?
Câu trả lời
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
Thẻ 441
Câu hỏi
Insight learning?
Câu trả lời
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
Thẻ 442
Câu hỏi
Biological preparedness?
Câu trả lời
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
Thẻ 443
Câu hỏi
What can mirror-neuron activity show?
Câu trả lời
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
Thẻ 444
Câu hỏi
Attribution?
Câu trả lời
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
Thẻ 445
Câu hỏi
Attitude?
Câu trả lời
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
Thẻ 446
Câu hỏi
Upward social comparison?
Câu trả lời
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
Thẻ 447
Câu hỏi
Optimistic explanatory style?
Câu trả lời
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
Thẻ 448
Câu hỏi
Situational attribution?
Câu trả lời
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
Thẻ 449
Câu hỏi
A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
Câu trả lời
Cognitive dissonance.
Thẻ 450
Câu hỏi
Downward social comparison?
Câu trả lời
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
Thẻ 451
Câu hỏi
Internal locus of control?
Câu trả lời
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
Thẻ 452
Câu hỏi
Dispositional attribution?
Câu trả lời
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
Thẻ 453
Câu hỏi
Pessimistic explanatory style?
Câu trả lời
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
Thẻ 454
Câu hỏi
Relative deprivation?
Câu trả lời
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
Thẻ 455
Câu hỏi
External locus of control?
Câu trả lời
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
Thẻ 456
Câu hỏi
Fundamental attribution error?
Câu trả lời
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
Thẻ 457
Câu hỏi
Halo effect?
Câu trả lời
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
Thẻ 458
Câu hỏi
Self-fulfilling prophecy?
Câu trả lời
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
Thẻ 459
Câu hỏi
Mere-exposure effect?
Câu trả lời
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
Thẻ 460
Câu hỏi
A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
Câu trả lời
The actor–observer difference.
Thẻ 461
Câu hỏi
A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
Câu trả lời
The central route.
Thẻ 462
Câu hỏi
Effort justification?
Câu trả lời
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
Thẻ 463
Câu hỏi
Stereotype?
Câu trả lời
A generalized belief about members of a group.
Thẻ 464
Câu hỏi
A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
Câu trả lời
Self-serving bias.
Thẻ 465
Câu hỏi
A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
Câu trả lời
The peripheral route.
Thẻ 466
Câu hỏi
Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
Câu trả lời
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
Thẻ 467
Câu hỏi
Prejudice?
Câu trả lời
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
Thẻ 468
Câu hỏi
The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:

Workload Errors

Low 2

High 8

Which attribution is better supported?
Câu trả lời
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
Thẻ 469
Câu hỏi
Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
Câu trả lời
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
Thẻ 470
Câu hỏi
Conformity?
Câu trả lời
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
Thẻ 471
Câu hỏi
Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
Câu trả lời
The bystander effect.
Thẻ 472
Câu hỏi
Diffusion of responsibility?
Câu trả lời
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
Thẻ 473
Câu hỏi
How can taking on a role affect attitude?
Câu trả lời
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
Thẻ 474
Câu hỏi
In-group bias?
Câu trả lời
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
Thẻ 475
Câu hỏi
After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
Câu trả lời
The foot-in-the-door technique.
Thẻ 476
Câu hỏi
A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
Câu trả lời
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
Thẻ 477
Câu hỏi
When do attitudes best predict behavior?
Câu trả lời
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
Thẻ 478
Câu hỏi
Discrimination?
Câu trả lời
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
Thẻ 479
Câu hỏi
Out-group homogeneity effect?
Câu trả lời
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
Thẻ 480
Câu hỏi
After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
Câu trả lời
The door-in-the-face technique.
Thẻ 481
Câu hỏi
A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
Câu trả lời
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
Thẻ 482
Câu hỏi
Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
Câu trả lời
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
Thẻ 483
Câu hỏi
Just-world belief?
Câu trả lời
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
Thẻ 484
Câu hỏi
Implicit attitude?
Câu trả lời
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
Thẻ 485
Câu hỏi
Ethnocentrism?
Câu trả lời
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
Thẻ 486
Câu hỏi
How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
Câu trả lời
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
Thẻ 487
Câu hỏi
Normative social influence?
Câu trả lời
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
Thẻ 488
Câu hỏi
Psychodynamic view of personality?
Câu trả lời
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
Thẻ 489
Câu hỏi
Norm of reciprocity?
Câu trả lời
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
Thẻ 490
Câu hỏi
Individualism?
Câu trả lời
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
Thẻ 491
Câu hỏi
Informational social influence?
Câu trả lời
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
Thẻ 492
Câu hỏi
Id?
Câu trả lời
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
Thẻ 493
Câu hỏi
Altruism?
Câu trả lời
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
Thẻ 494
Câu hỏi
Social norm?
Câu trả lời
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
Thẻ 495
Câu hỏi
What tends to increase conformity?
Câu trả lời
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
Thẻ 496
Câu hỏi
Ego?
Câu trả lời
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
Thẻ 497
Câu hỏi
A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
Câu trả lời
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
Thẻ 498
Câu hỏi
Collectivism?
Câu trả lời
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
Thẻ 499
Câu hỏi
Obedience?
Câu trả lời
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
Thẻ 500
Câu hỏi
Superego?
Câu trả lời
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
Thẻ 501
Câu hỏi
A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
Câu trả lời
Denial.
Thẻ 502
Câu hỏi
Social-responsibility norm?
Câu trả lời
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
Thẻ 503
Câu hỏi
How does proximity affect attraction?
Câu trả lời
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
Thẻ 504
Câu hỏi
What tends to increase obedience?
Câu trả lời
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
Thẻ 505
Câu hỏi
After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
Câu trả lời
Displacement.
Thẻ 506
Câu hỏi
Social loafing?
Câu trả lời
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
Thẻ 507
Câu hỏi
Multiculturalism?
Câu trả lời
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
Thẻ 508
Câu hỏi
How does similarity affect attraction?
Câu trả lời
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
Thẻ 509
Câu hỏi
A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
Câu trả lời
Projection.
Thẻ 510
Câu hỏi
Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
Câu trả lời
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
Thẻ 511
Câu hỏi
Deindividuation?
Câu trả lời
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
Thẻ 512
Câu hỏi
Group polarization?
Câu trả lời
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
Thẻ 513
Câu hỏi
After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
Câu trả lời
Rationalization.
Thẻ 514
Câu hỏi
A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
Câu trả lời
Groupthink.
Thẻ 515
Câu hỏi
Pluralistic ignorance?
Câu trả lời
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
Thẻ 516
Câu hỏi
Social trap?
Câu trả lời
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
Thẻ 517
Câu hỏi
Reaction formation?
Câu trả lời
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
Thẻ 518
Câu hỏi
Superordinate goal?
Câu trả lời
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
Thẻ 519
Câu hỏi
False-consensus effect?
Câu trả lời
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
Thẻ 520
Câu hỏi
Industrial-organizational psychology?
Câu trả lời
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
Thẻ 521
Câu hỏi
Repression?
Câu trả lời
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
Thẻ 522
Câu hỏi
Burnout?
Câu trả lời
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
Thẻ 523
Câu hỏi
Unconditional positive regard?
Câu trả lời
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
Thẻ 524
Câu hỏi
Trait?
Câu trả lời
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
Thẻ 525
Câu hỏi
Regression as a defense mechanism?
Câu trả lời
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
Thẻ 526
Câu hỏi
Reciprocal determinism?
Câu trả lời
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
Thẻ 527
Câu hỏi
Self-efficacy?
Câu trả lời
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
Thẻ 528
Câu hỏi
Self-concept in humanistic theory?
Câu trả lời
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
Thẻ 529
Câu hỏi
Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
Câu trả lời
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
Thẻ 530
Câu hỏi
A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Câu trả lời
Openness.
Thẻ 531
Câu hỏi
Personality inventory?
Câu trả lời
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
Thẻ 532
Câu hỏi
Self-actualizing tendency?
Câu trả lời
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
Thẻ 533
Câu hỏi
Self-esteem?
Câu trả lời
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
Thẻ 534
Câu hỏi
Instinct in motivation research?
Câu trả lời
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
Thẻ 535
Câu hỏi
A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Câu trả lời
Conscientiousness.
Thẻ 536
Câu hỏi
Projective test?
Câu trả lời
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
Thẻ 537
Câu hỏi
How does factor analysis help trait research?
Câu trả lời
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
Thẻ 538
Câu hỏi
Drive-reduction theory?
Câu trả lời
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
Thẻ 539
Câu hỏi
A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Câu trả lời
Extraversion.
Thẻ 540
Câu hỏi
Person–situation debate?
Câu trả lời
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
Thẻ 541
Câu hỏi
A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
Câu trả lời
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
Thẻ 542
Câu hỏi
Homeostasis?
Câu trả lời
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
Thẻ 543
Câu hỏi
Incentive theory?
Câu trả lời
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
Thẻ 544
Câu hỏi
Big Five agreeableness?
Câu trả lời
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
Thẻ 545
Câu hỏi
A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
Câu trả lời
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
Thẻ 546
Câu hỏi
A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
Câu trả lời
An approach–approach conflict.
Thẻ 547
Câu hỏi
Arousal theory of motivation?
Câu trả lời
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
Thẻ 548
Câu hỏi
Big Five emotional stability?
Câu trả lời
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
Thẻ 549
Câu hỏi
What regulates hunger?
Câu trả lời
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
Thẻ 550
Câu hỏi
Three broad components of emotion?
Câu trả lời
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
Thẻ 551
Câu hỏi
Self-determination theory?
Câu trả lời
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
Thẻ 552
Câu hỏi
Emotion regulation?
Câu trả lời
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
Thẻ 553
Câu hỏi
Sensation-seeking?
Câu trả lời
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
Thẻ 554
Câu hỏi
Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
Câu trả lời
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
Thẻ 555
Câu hỏi
Intrinsic motivation?
Câu trả lời
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
Thẻ 556
Câu hỏi
Display rules?
Câu trả lời
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
Thẻ 557
Câu hỏi
Arousal and performance relationship?
Câu trả lời
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
Thẻ 558
Câu hỏi
A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
Câu trả lời
An approach–avoidance conflict.
Thẻ 559
Câu hỏi
Extrinsic motivation?
Câu trả lời
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
Thẻ 560
Câu hỏi
Achievement motivation?
Câu trả lời
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
Thẻ 561
Câu hỏi
Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
Câu trả lời
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
Thẻ 562
Câu hỏi
A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
Câu trả lời
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
Thẻ 563
Câu hỏi
Overjustification effect?
Câu trả lời
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
Thẻ 564
Câu hỏi
Belongingness motivation?
Câu trả lời
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
Thẻ 565
Câu hỏi
Study time changed after students chose their own topic:

Condition Mean minutes

Assigned topic 34

Chosen topic 47

What is the observed mean difference?
Câu trả lời
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
Thẻ 566
Câu hỏi
Facial-feedback effect?
Câu trả lời
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
Thẻ 567
Câu hỏi
Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
Câu trả lời
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
Thẻ 568
Câu hỏi
A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
Câu trả lời
Cognitive reappraisal.
Thẻ 569
Câu hỏi
Broaden-and-build view?
Câu trả lời
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
Thẻ 570
Câu hỏi
Which emotions often appear across cultures?
Câu trả lời
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
Thẻ 571
Câu hỏi
How can the same arousal become different emotions?
Câu trả lời
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
Thẻ 572
Câu hỏi
Expressive suppression?
Câu trả lời
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
Thẻ 573
Câu hỏi
How does acute stress affect the body?
Câu trả lời
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
Thẻ 574
Câu hỏi
Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
Câu trả lời
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
Thẻ 575
Câu hỏi
In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
Câu trả lời
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
Thẻ 576
Câu hỏi
A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
Câu trả lời
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
Thẻ 577
Câu hỏi
Health psychology?
Câu trả lời
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
Thẻ 578
Câu hỏi
Positive psychology?
Câu trả lời
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
Thẻ 579
Câu hỏi
Stress?
Câu trả lời
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
Thẻ 580
Câu hỏi
A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
Câu trả lời
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
Thẻ 581
Câu hỏi
Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
Câu trả lời
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
Thẻ 582
Câu hỏi
Resilience?
Câu trả lời
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
Thẻ 583
Câu hỏi
Stressor?
Câu trả lời
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
Thẻ 584
Câu hỏi
General adaptation syndrome?
Câu trả lời
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
Thẻ 585
Câu hỏi
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
Câu trả lời
Problem-focused coping.
Thẻ 586
Câu hỏi
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
Câu trả lời
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
Thẻ 587
Câu hỏi
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
Câu trả lời
Primary appraisal.
Thẻ 588
Câu hỏi
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
Câu trả lời
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
Thẻ 589
Câu hỏi
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
Câu trả lời
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
Thẻ 590
Câu hỏi
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
Câu trả lời
Emotion-focused coping.
Thẻ 591
Câu hỏi
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
Câu trả lời
Secondary appraisal.
Thẻ 592
Câu hỏi
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
Câu trả lời
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
Thẻ 593
Câu hỏi
Adverse childhood experiences?
Câu trả lời
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
Thẻ 594
Câu hỏi
How can social support protect health?
Câu trả lời
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
Thẻ 595
Câu hỏi
Eustress versus distress?
Câu trả lời
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
Thẻ 596
Câu hỏi
Tend-and-befriend response?
Câu trả lời
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
Thẻ 597
Câu hỏi
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
Câu trả lời
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
Thẻ 598
Câu hỏi
Biofeedback?
Câu trả lời
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
Thẻ 599
Câu hỏi
How does perceived control affect stress?
Câu trả lời
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
Thẻ 600
Câu hỏi
Psychoneuroimmunology?
Câu trả lời
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
Thẻ 601
Câu hỏi
Subjective well-being?
Câu trả lời
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
Thẻ 602
Câu hỏi
Psychological disorder?
Câu trả lời
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
Thẻ 603
Câu hỏi
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
Câu trả lời
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
Thẻ 604
Câu hỏi
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
Câu trả lời
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
Thẻ 605
Câu hỏi
Signature strengths?
Câu trả lời
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
Thẻ 606
Câu hỏi
Biopsychosocial model?
Câu trả lời
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
Thẻ 607
Câu hỏi
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
Câu trả lời
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
Thẻ 608
Câu hỏi
Posttraumatic growth?
Câu trả lời
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
Thẻ 609
Câu hỏi
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
Câu trả lời
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
Thẻ 610
Câu hỏi
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
Câu trả lời
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
Thẻ 611
Câu hỏi
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
Câu trả lời
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
Thẻ 612
Câu hỏi
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
Câu trả lời
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
Thẻ 613
Câu hỏi
Biological explanation of disorder?
Câu trả lời
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
Thẻ 614
Câu hỏi
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
Câu trả lời
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
Thẻ 615
Câu hỏi
Purpose of the DSM?
Câu trả lời
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
Thẻ 616
Câu hỏi
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
Câu trả lời
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
Thẻ 617
Câu hỏi
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
Câu trả lời
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
Thẻ 618
Câu hỏi
Autism spectrum disorder?
Câu trả lời
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
Thẻ 619
Câu hỏi
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
Câu trả lời
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
Thẻ 620
Câu hỏi
Major depressive disorder?
Câu trả lời
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
Thẻ 621
Câu hỏi
Specific phobia?
Câu trả lời
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
Thẻ 622
Câu hỏi
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
Câu trả lời
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
Thẻ 623
Câu hỏi
Dissociative amnesia?
Câu trả lời
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
Thẻ 624
Câu hỏi
Bipolar I disorder?
Câu trả lời
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
Thẻ 625
Câu hỏi
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
Câu trả lời
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
Thẻ 626
Câu hỏi
Anorexia nervosa?
Câu trả lời
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
Thẻ 627
Câu hỏi
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
Câu trả lời
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
Thẻ 628
Câu hỏi
Bipolar II disorder?
Câu trả lời
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
Thẻ 629
Câu hỏi
Purpose of the ICD?
Câu trả lời
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
Thẻ 630
Câu hỏi
Bulimia nervosa?
Câu trả lời
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
Thẻ 631
Câu hỏi
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
Câu trả lời
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
Thẻ 632
Câu hỏi
Ataque de nervios?
Câu trả lời
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
Thẻ 633
Câu hỏi
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
Câu trả lời
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
Thẻ 634
Câu hỏi
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
Câu trả lời
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
Thẻ 635
Câu hỏi
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
Câu trả lời
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
Thẻ 636
Câu hỏi
Comorbidity?
Câu trả lời
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
Thẻ 637
Câu hỏi
Humanistic explanation of distress?
Câu trả lời
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
Thẻ 638
Câu hỏi
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
Câu trả lời
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
Thẻ 639
Câu hỏi
Stigma around mental disorder?
Câu trả lời
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
Thẻ 640
Câu hỏi
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
Câu trả lời
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
Thẻ 641
Câu hỏi
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
Câu trả lời
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
Thẻ 642
Câu hỏi
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
Câu trả lời
Interrater reliability.
Thẻ 643
Câu hỏi
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
Câu trả lời
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
Thẻ 644
Câu hỏi
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
Câu trả lời
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
Thẻ 645
Câu hỏi
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
Câu trả lời
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
Thẻ 646
Câu hỏi
Delusion?
Câu trả lời
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
Thẻ 647
Câu hỏi
Agoraphobia?
Câu trả lời
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
Thẻ 648
Câu hỏi
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
Câu trả lời
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
Thẻ 649
Câu hỏi
Eclectic approach to disorder?
Câu trả lời
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
Thẻ 650
Câu hỏi
Hallucination?
Câu trả lời
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
Thẻ 651
Câu hỏi
Panic disorder?
Câu trả lời
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
Thẻ 652
Câu hỏi
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
Câu trả lời
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
Thẻ 653
Câu hỏi
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
Câu trả lời
The diathesis–stress model.
Thẻ 654
Câu hỏi
Cluster A personality disorders?
Câu trả lời
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
Thẻ 655
Câu hỏi
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
Câu trả lời
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
Thẻ 656
Câu hỏi
Evidence-based treatment?
Câu trả lời
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
Thẻ 657
Câu hỏi
Therapeutic alliance?
Câu trả lời
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
Thẻ 658
Câu hỏi
Cultural humility in therapy?
Câu trả lời
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
Thẻ 659
Câu hỏi
Deinstitutionalization?
Câu trả lời
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
Thẻ 660
Câu hỏi
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
Câu trả lời
Exposure therapy.
Thẻ 661
Câu hỏi
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
Câu trả lời
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
Thẻ 662
Câu hỏi
Four medication categories in the course?
Câu trả lời
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
Thẻ 663
Câu hỏi
Depressive cognitive triad?
Câu trả lời
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
Thẻ 664
Câu hỏi
Applied behavior analysis?
Câu trả lời
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
Thẻ 665
Câu hỏi
Psychosurgery?
Câu trả lời
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
Thẻ 666
Câu hỏi
Free association?
Câu trả lời
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
Thẻ 667
Câu hỏi
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
Câu trả lời
Cognitive restructuring.
Thẻ 668
Câu hỏi
One advantage of group therapy?
Câu trả lời
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
Thẻ 669
Câu hỏi
Lobotomy?
Câu trả lời
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
Thẻ 670
Câu hỏi
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
Câu trả lời
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
Thẻ 671
Câu hỏi
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
Câu trả lời
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
Thẻ 672
Câu hỏi
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
Câu trả lời
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
Thẻ 673
Câu hỏi
Social anxiety disorder?
Câu trả lời
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
Thẻ 674
Câu hỏi
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
Câu trả lời
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
Thẻ 675
Câu hỏi
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
Câu trả lời
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
Thẻ 676
Câu hỏi
Dissociative fugue?
Câu trả lời
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
Thẻ 677
Câu hỏi
Cluster B personality disorders?
Câu trả lời
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
Thẻ 678
Câu hỏi
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
Câu trả lời
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
Thẻ 679
Câu hỏi
Catatonia?
Câu trả lời
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
Thẻ 680
Câu hỏi
Manic episode?
Câu trả lời
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
Thẻ 681
Câu hỏi
Dissociative identity disorder?
Câu trả lời
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
Thẻ 682
Câu hỏi
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
Câu trả lời
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
Thẻ 683
Câu hỏi
Cluster C personality disorders?
Câu trả lời
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
Thẻ 684
Câu hỏi
Taijin kyofusho?
Câu trả lời
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
Thẻ 685
Câu hỏi
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
Câu trả lời
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
Thẻ 686
Câu hỏi
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
Câu trả lời
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
Thẻ 687
Câu hỏi
Hypomanic episode?
Câu trả lời
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
Thẻ 688
Câu hỏi
Generalized anxiety disorder?
Câu trả lời
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
Thẻ 689
Câu hỏi
Hoarding disorder?
Câu trả lời
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
Thẻ 690
Câu hỏi
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
Câu trả lời
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
Thẻ 691
Câu hỏi
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
Câu trả lời
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
Thẻ 692
Câu hỏi
Persistent depressive disorder?
Câu trả lời
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
Thẻ 693
Câu hỏi
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
Câu trả lời
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
Thẻ 694
Câu hỏi
Systematic desensitization?
Câu trả lời
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
Thẻ 695
Câu hỏi
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
Câu trả lời
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
Thẻ 696
Câu hỏi
Dialectical behavior therapy?
Câu trả lời
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
Thẻ 697
Câu hỏi
Integrity in therapy ethics?
Câu trả lời
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
Thẻ 698
Câu hỏi
Aversion therapy?
Câu trả lời
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
Thẻ 699
Câu hỏi
Tardive dyskinesia?
Câu trả lời
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
Thẻ 700
Câu hỏi
ECT versus TMS?
Câu trả lời
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
Thẻ 701
Câu hỏi
Respect for rights and dignity?
Câu trả lời
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
Thẻ 702
Câu hỏi
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
Câu trả lời
A token economy.
Thẻ 703
Câu hỏi
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
Câu trả lời
Person-centered therapy.
Thẻ 704
Câu hỏi
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
Câu trả lời
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
Thẻ 705
Câu hỏi
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
Câu trả lời
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.

Workload	Errors
Low	2
High	8

Condition	Mean minutes
Assigned topic	34
Chosen topic	47

705 thẻ