Nature in the nature–nurture question?

Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.

Central nervous system?

The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.

Main role of the spinal cord?

It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.

Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?

7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.

Nurture in the nature–nurture question?

Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.

Peripheral nervous system?

The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.

A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.

Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?

210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.

The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.

Autonomic nervous system?

The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.

Evolutionary perspective on behavior?

It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.

Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?

It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.

Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?

They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.

Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?

A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.

Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.

Somatic nervous system?

The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.

They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.

Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?

An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.

Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?

Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.

Sympathetic nervous system?

The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.

Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?

The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.

They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?

The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.

Parasympathetic nervous system?

The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.

The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.

Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.

Adrenaline's behavioral role?

It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.

Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.

The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.

The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.

Leptin's role in eating?

It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.

Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.

Depolarization during an action potential?

Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.

Dopamine's major psychological functions?

Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.

A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.

A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.

The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.

Serotonin's major psychological functions?

Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.

Glutamate's major psychological functions?

It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.

A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.

It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.

A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.

Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.

A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.

All-or-none principle?

A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.

Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?

Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.

GABA's major psychological function?

It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.

Oxytocin's behavioral role?

It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.

A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.

AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review

Review all five AP® Psychology units with 705 independently written cards covering concepts, scenarios, research methods, data interpretation, and evidence-based reasoning.

लेखक Open Study Contributor

हा संच मोफत अभ्यासा

अभ्यास सुरू करण्यासाठी Nibomo उघडेल.

संचाचा तपशील

कार्डे: ७०५ कार्डे
आवृत्ती: ३
प्रकाशित: २५ ऑगस्ट, २०२६
शेवटचे अद्यतन: १० सप्टेंबर, २०२६
परवाना: Common knowledge · CC0 1.0
लक्ष्य शिकणाऱ्यांच्या भाषा: en
विषय: Psychology
स्तर: AP Psychology
टॅग: psychology-course-review, psychology-course-review-u1, psychology-course-review-u2, psychology-course-review-u3, psychology-course-review-u4, psychology-course-review-u5

मिळतेजुळते संच

या संचाविषयी

Review all five units in the AP® Psychology course framework with 705 independently written English flashcards. The deck covers Biological Bases of Behavior, Cognition, Development and Learning, Social Psychology and Personality, and Mental and Physical Health. It supports all four science practices: Concept Application, Research Methods and Design, Data Interpretation, and Argumentation.

What the cards ask you to retrieve

Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.

The order follows Units 1–5, keeps related material within the current or next topic, and introduces prerequisites and chronological steps first. Definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are separated by at least three unrelated cards. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences remain adjacent only when that progression helps learning.

What's deliberately left out

The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or use long essay prompts. It also leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.

Check the official AP Psychology course page for authoritative requirements. Psychological facts and the course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, ordering, and inherited generated cover, to the extent those rights exist.

This is an independent, unofficial study aid. It isn't affiliated with, endorsed by, sponsored by, or official material from College Board or the AP Program. AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this product. No College Board examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or trade dress were copied or adapted.

या संचातील कार्डे

कार्ड १
प्रश्न
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
उत्तर
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
कार्ड २
प्रश्न
Central nervous system?
उत्तर
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
कार्ड ३
प्रश्न
Main role of the spinal cord?
उत्तर
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
कार्ड ४
प्रश्न
Scores are 4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?
उत्तर
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
कार्ड ५
प्रश्न
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
उत्तर
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
कार्ड ६
प्रश्न
Peripheral nervous system?
उत्तर
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
कार्ड ७
प्रश्न
Reflex arc?
उत्तर
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
कार्ड ८
प्रश्न
Reflex times are 180, 190, 210, 260, 410 milliseconds. What is the median?
उत्तर
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
कार्ड ९
प्रश्न
Heritability?
उत्तर
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
कार्ड १०
प्रश्न
Autonomic nervous system?
उत्तर
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
कार्ड ११
प्रश्न
Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
उत्तर
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
कार्ड १२
प्रश्न
Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
उत्तर
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
कार्ड १३
प्रश्न
Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
उत्तर
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
कार्ड १४
प्रश्न
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
उत्तर
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
कार्ड १५
प्रश्न
Natural selection?
उत्तर
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
कार्ड १६
प्रश्न
Somatic nervous system?
उत्तर
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
कार्ड १७
प्रश्न
Sensory neurons?
उत्तर
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
कार्ड १८
प्रश्न
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
उत्तर
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
कार्ड १९
प्रश्न
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
उत्तर
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
कार्ड २०
प्रश्न
Sympathetic nervous system?
उत्तर
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
कार्ड २१
प्रश्न
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
उत्तर
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
कार्ड २२
प्रश्न
Motor neurons?
उत्तर
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
कार्ड २३
प्रश्न
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
उत्तर
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
कार्ड २४
प्रश्न
Parasympathetic nervous system?
उत्तर
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
कार्ड २५
प्रश्न
Resting potential?
उत्तर
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
कार्ड २६
प्रश्न
Interneurons?
उत्तर
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
कार्ड २७
प्रश्न
Adrenaline's behavioral role?
उत्तर
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
कार्ड २८
प्रश्न
Frontal lobes?
उत्तर
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
कार्ड २९
प्रश्न
Neural threshold?
उत्तर
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
कार्ड ३०
प्रश्न
Corpus callosum?
उत्तर
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
कार्ड ३१
प्रश्न
Leptin's role in eating?
उत्तर
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
कार्ड ३२
प्रश्न
Temporal lobes?
उत्तर
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
कार्ड ३३
प्रश्न
Depolarization during an action potential?
उत्तर
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
कार्ड ३४
प्रश्न
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
उत्तर
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
कार्ड ३५
प्रश्न
Ghrelin's role in eating?
उत्तर
It helps stimulate hunger.
कार्ड ३६
प्रश्न
Drug agonist?
उत्तर
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
कार्ड ३७
प्रश्न
Action potential?
उत्तर
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
कार्ड ३८
प्रश्न
Reuptake?
उत्तर
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
कार्ड ३९
प्रश्न
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
उत्तर
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
कार्ड ४०
प्रश्न
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
उत्तर
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
कार्ड ४१
प्रश्न
Refractory period?
उत्तर
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
कार्ड ४२
प्रश्न
Melatonin's role?
उत्तर
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
कार्ड ४३
प्रश्न
Drug antagonist?
उत्तर
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
कार्ड ४४
प्रश्न
Stimulants?
उत्तर
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
कार्ड ४५
प्रश्न
Drug tolerance?
उत्तर
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
कार्ड ४६
प्रश्न
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
उत्तर
Multiple sclerosis.
कार्ड ४७
प्रश्न
All-or-none principle?
उत्तर
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
कार्ड ४८
प्रश्न
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
उत्तर
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
कार्ड ४९
प्रश्न
GABA's major psychological function?
उत्तर
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
कार्ड ५०
प्रश्न
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
उत्तर
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
कार्ड ५१
प्रश्न
Reuptake inhibitor?
उत्तर
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
कार्ड ५२
प्रश्न
Depressants?
उत्तर
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
कार्ड ५३
प्रश्न
Drug withdrawal?
उत्तर
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
कार्ड ५४
प्रश्न
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
उत्तर
Myasthenia gravis.
कार्ड ५५
प्रश्न
Glial cells?
उत्तर
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
कार्ड ५६
प्रश्न
Endorphins?
उत्तर
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
कार्ड ५७
प्रश्न
Substance P?
उत्तर
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
कार्ड ५८
प्रश्न
Acetylcholine's major functions?
उत्तर
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
कार्ड ५९
प्रश्न
Opioids?
उत्तर
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
कार्ड ६०
प्रश्न
Hallucinogens?
उत्तर
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
कार्ड ६१
प्रश्न
Addiction?
उत्तर
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
कार्ड ६२
प्रश्न
Parietal lobes?
उत्तर
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
कार्ड ६३
प्रश्न
Consciousness?
उत्तर
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
कार्ड ६४
प्रश्न
Circadian rhythm?
उत्तर
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
कार्ड ६५
प्रश्न
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
उत्तर
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
कार्ड ६६
प्रश्न
Occipital lobes?
उत्तर
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
कार्ड ६७
प्रश्न
What does split-brain research reveal?
उत्तर
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
कार्ड ६८
प्रश्न
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
उत्तर
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
कार्ड ६९
प्रश्न
NREM-1 sleep?
उत्तर
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
कार्ड ७०
प्रश्न
Motor cortex?
उत्तर
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
कार्ड ७१
प्रश्न
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
उत्तर
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
कार्ड ७२
प्रश्न
Brainstem's core function?
उत्तर
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
कार्ड ७३
प्रश्न
NREM-2 sleep?
उत्तर
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
कार्ड ७४
प्रश्न
Somatosensory cortex?
उत्तर
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
कार्ड ७५
प्रश्न
Medulla's main functions?
उत्तर
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
कार्ड ७६
प्रश्न
Reticular activating system?
उत्तर
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
कार्ड ७७
प्रश्न
NREM-3 sleep?
उत्तर
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
कार्ड ७८
प्रश्न
Cerebellum's main functions?
उत्तर
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
कार्ड ७९
प्रश्न
Thalamus?
उत्तर
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
कार्ड ८०
प्रश्न
Hypothalamus?
उत्तर
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
कार्ड ८१
प्रश्न
REM sleep?
उत्तर
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
कार्ड ८२
प्रश्न
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
उत्तर
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
कार्ड ८३
प्रश्न
Amygdala?
उत्तर
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
कार्ड ८४
प्रश्न
Hippocampus?
उत्तर
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
कार्ड ८५
प्रश्न
How does sleep change across a typical night?
उत्तर
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
कार्ड ८६
प्रश्न
Contralateral brain control?
उत्तर
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
कार्ड ८७
प्रश्न
What does an EEG measure?
उत्तर
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
कार्ड ८८
प्रश्न
Reward-center activity?
उत्तर
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
कार्ड ८९
प्रश्न
Neuroplasticity?
उत्तर
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
कार्ड ९०
प्रश्न
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
उत्तर
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
कार्ड ९१
प्रश्न
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
उत्तर
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
कार्ड ९२
प्रश्न
Insomnia?
उत्तर
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
कार्ड ९३
प्रश्न
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
उत्तर
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
कार्ड ९४
प्रश्न
Absolute threshold?
उत्तर
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
कार्ड ९५
प्रश्न
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
उत्तर
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
कार्ड ९६
प्रश्न
Narcolepsy?
उत्तर
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
कार्ड ९७
प्रश्न
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
उत्तर
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
कार्ड ९८
प्रश्न
Difference threshold?
उत्तर
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
कार्ड ९९
प्रश्न
Consolidation view of dreams?
उत्तर
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
कार्ड १००
प्रश्न
REM sleep behavior disorder?
उत्तर
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
कार्ड १०१
प्रश्न
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
उत्तर
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
कार्ड १०२
प्रश्न
Weber's law?
उत्तर
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
कार्ड १०३
प्रश्न
Two supported functions of sleep?
उत्तर
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
कार्ड १०४
प्रश्न
Sleep apnea?
उत्तर
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
कार्ड १०५
प्रश्न
REM rebound?
उत्तर
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
कार्ड १०६
प्रश्न
Signal detection theory?
उत्तर
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
कार्ड १०७
प्रश्न
Sensory transduction?
उत्तर
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
कार्ड १०८
प्रश्न
Vestibular sense?
उत्तर
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
कार्ड १०९
प्रश्न
Somnambulism?
उत्तर
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
कार्ड ११०
प्रश्न
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
उत्तर
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
कार्ड १११
प्रश्न
What begins visual transduction?
उत्तर
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
कार्ड ११२
प्रश्न
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
उत्तर
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
कार्ड ११३
प्रश्न
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
उत्तर
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
कार्ड ११४
प्रश्न
Accommodation in vision?
उत्तर
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
कार्ड ११५
प्रश्न
Cones?
उत्तर
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
कार्ड ११६
प्रश्न
What begins auditory transduction?
उत्तर
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
कार्ड ११७
प्रश्न
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
उत्तर
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
कार्ड ११८
प्रश्न
How is smell unusual among the senses?
उत्तर
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
कार्ड ११९
प्रश्न
Kinesthesia?
उत्तर
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
कार्ड १२०
प्रश्न
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
उत्तर
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
कार्ड १२१
प्रश्न
Nearsightedness?
उत्तर
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
कार्ड १२२
प्रश्न
Pheromones?
उत्तर
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
कार्ड १२३
प्रश्न
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
उत्तर
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
कार्ड १२४
प्रश्न
Volley theory of pitch?
उत्तर
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
कार्ड १२५
प्रश्न
Farsightedness?
उत्तर
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
कार्ड १२६
प्रश्न
Six taste qualities named in the course?
उत्तर
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
कार्ड १२७
प्रश्न
Phantom-limb sensation?
उत्तर
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
कार्ड १२८
प्रश्न
Sensory interaction?
उत्तर
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
कार्ड १२९
प्रश्न
What causes most color-vision deficiency?
उत्तर
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
कार्ड १३०
प्रश्न
Prosopagnosia?
उत्तर
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
कार्ड १३१
प्रश्न
Rods?
उत्तर
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
कार्ड १३२
प्रश्न
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
उत्तर
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
कार्ड १३३
प्रश्न
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
उत्तर
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
कार्ड १३४
प्रश्न
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
उत्तर
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
कार्ड १३५
प्रश्न
What do the semicircular canals detect?
उत्तर
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
कार्ड १३६
प्रश्न
Synesthesia?
उत्तर
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
कार्ड १३७
प्रश्न
Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
उत्तर
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
कार्ड १३८
प्रश्न
Blindsight?
उत्तर
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
कार्ड १३९
प्रश्न
Sensory adaptation?
उत्तर
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
कार्ड १४०
प्रश्न
Gate-control view of pain?
उत्तर
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
कार्ड १४१
प्रश्न
Bottom-up processing?
उत्तर
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
कार्ड १४२
प्रश्न
Concept?
उत्तर
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
कार्ड १४३
प्रश्न
Fixation in problem solving?
उत्तर
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
कार्ड १४४
प्रश्न
Algorithm?
उत्तर
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
कार्ड १४५
प्रश्न
Top-down processing?
उत्तर
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
कार्ड १४६
प्रश्न
Confirmation bias?
उत्तर
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
कार्ड १४७
प्रश्न
Retinal disparity?
उत्तर
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
कार्ड १४८
प्रश्न
Heuristic?
उत्तर
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
कार्ड १४९
प्रश्न
Selective attention?
उत्तर
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
कार्ड १५०
प्रश्न
Figure–ground organization?
उत्तर
Separating the object of attention from its background.
कार्ड १५१
प्रश्न
Convergence as a depth cue?
उत्तर
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
कार्ड १५२
प्रश्न
Representativeness heuristic?
उत्तर
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
कार्ड १५३
प्रश्न
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
उत्तर
Inattentional blindness.
कार्ड १५४
प्रश्न
Gestalt proximity principle?
उत्तर
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
कार्ड १५५
प्रश्न
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
उत्तर
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
कार्ड १५६
प्रश्न
Cocktail-party effect?
उत्तर
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
कार्ड १५७
प्रश्न
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
उत्तर
Change blindness.
कार्ड १५८
प्रश्न
Gestalt similarity principle?
उत्तर
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
कार्ड १५९
प्रश्न
Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
उत्तर
Linear perspective.
कार्ड १६०
प्रश्न
Perceptual constancy?
उत्तर
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
कार्ड १६१
प्रश्न
Perceptual set?
उत्तर
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
कार्ड १६२
प्रश्न
Gestalt closure principle?
उत्तर
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
कार्ड १६३
प्रश्न
One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
उत्तर
The blocking object, using interposition.
कार्ड १६४
प्रश्न
Apparent motion?
उत्तर
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
कार्ड १६५
प्रश्न
Availability heuristic?
उत्तर
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
कार्ड १६६
प्रश्न
Divergent thinking?
उत्तर
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
कार्ड १६७
प्रश्न
A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
उत्तर
Relative clarity.
कार्ड १६८
प्रश्न
Prototype?
उत्तर
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
कार्ड १६९
प्रश्न
Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
उत्तर
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
कार्ड १७०
प्रश्न
Convergent thinking?
उत्तर
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
कार्ड १७१
प्रश्न
A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
उत्तर
Texture gradient.
कार्ड १७२
प्रश्न
Belief perseverance?
उत्तर
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
कार्ड १७३
प्रश्न
Explicit memory?
उत्तर
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
कार्ड १७४
प्रश्न
Three stores in the multi-store model?
उत्तर
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
कार्ड १७५
प्रश्न
Seeing an object only in its usual role?
उत्तर
Functional fixedness.
कार्ड १७६
प्रश्न
Mental set?
उत्तर
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
कार्ड १७७
प्रश्न
Episodic memory?
उत्तर
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
कार्ड १७८
प्रश्न
Working memory?
उत्तर
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
कार्ड १७९
प्रश्न
Insight?
उत्तर
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
कार्ड १८०
प्रश्न
Framing effect?
उत्तर
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
कार्ड १८१
प्रश्न
Implicit memory?
उत्तर
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
कार्ड १८२
प्रश्न
Overconfidence bias?
उत्तर
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
कार्ड १८३
प्रश्न
Anchoring bias?
उत्तर
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
कार्ड १८४
प्रश्न
Schema in thinking?
उत्तर
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
कार्ड १८५
प्रश्न
Procedural memory?
उत्तर
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
कार्ड १८६
प्रश्न
Gambler's fallacy?
उत्तर
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
कार्ड १८७
प्रश्न
Sunk-cost fallacy?
उत्तर
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
कार्ड १८८
प्रश्न
Executive functions?
उत्तर
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
कार्ड १८९
प्रश्न
How can priming affect judgment?
उत्तर
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
कार्ड १९०
प्रश्न
Central executive in working memory?
उत्तर
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
कार्ड १९१
प्रश्न
Serial-position effect?
उत्तर
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
कार्ड १९२
प्रश्न
Semantic memory?
उत्तर
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
कार्ड १९३
प्रश्न
Levels-of-processing principle?
उत्तर
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
कार्ड १९४
प्रश्न
Automatic processing?
उत्तर
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
कार्ड १९५
प्रश्न
Maintenance rehearsal?
उत्तर
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
कार्ड १९६
प्रश्न
Prospective memory?
उत्तर
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
कार्ड १९७
प्रश्न
Primacy effect?
उत्तर
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
कार्ड १९८
प्रश्न
Long-term memory?
उत्तर
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
कार्ड १९९
प्रश्न
Highly superior autobiographical memory?
उत्तर
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
कार्ड २००
प्रश्न
Effortful processing?
उत्तर
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
कार्ड २०१
प्रश्न
Elaborative rehearsal?
उत्तर
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
कार्ड २०२
प्रश्न
Memory consolidation?
उत्तर
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
कार्ड २०३
प्रश्न
Recency effect?
उत्तर
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
कार्ड २०४
प्रश्न
Spacing effect?
उत्तर
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
कार्ड २०५
प्रश्न
Testing effect?
उत्तर
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
कार्ड २०६
प्रश्न
Chunking?
उत्तर
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
कार्ड २०७
प्रश्न
Mnemonic?
उत्तर
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
कार्ड २०८
प्रश्न
Why organize material into a hierarchy?
उत्तर
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
कार्ड २०९
प्रश्न
How can a schema help encoding?
उत्तर
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
कार्ड २१०
प्रश्न
Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
उत्तर
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
कार्ड २११
प्रश्न
Iconic memory?
उत्तर
A very brief visual sensory memory.
कार्ड २१२
प्रश्न
Recall?
उत्तर
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
कार्ड २१३
प्रश्न
Retrieval cue?
उत्तर
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
कार्ड २१४
प्रश्न
Encoding-specificity principle?
उत्तर
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
कार्ड २१५
प्रश्न
Context-dependent memory?
उत्तर
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
कार्ड २१६
प्रश्न
Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
उत्तर
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
कार्ड २१७
प्रश्न
Echoic memory?
उत्तर
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
कार्ड २१८
प्रश्न
Anterograde amnesia?
उत्तर
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
कार्ड २१९
प्रश्न
Phonological loop?
उत्तर
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
कार्ड २२०
प्रश्न
Cerebellum's memory role?
उत्तर
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
कार्ड २२१
प्रश्न
Why is short-term memory described as limited?
उत्तर
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
कार्ड २२२
प्रश्न
Retrograde amnesia?
उत्तर
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
कार्ड २२३
प्रश्न
Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
उत्तर
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
कार्ड २२४
प्रश्न
How can the amygdala affect memory?
उत्तर
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
कार्ड २२५
प्रश्न
Visuospatial sketchpad?
उत्तर
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
कार्ड २२६
प्रश्न
Long-term potentiation?
उत्तर
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
कार्ड २२७
प्रश्न
Infantile amnesia?
उत्तर
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
कार्ड २२८
प्रश्न
Alzheimer's disease?
उत्तर
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
कार्ड २२९
प्रश्न
Scores are 2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?
उत्तर
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because 9 - 2 = 7.
कार्ड २३०
प्रश्न
Recognition?
उत्तर
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
कार्ड २३१
प्रश्न
Why is memory called reconstructive?
उत्तर
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
कार्ड २३२
प्रश्न
Storage decay?
उत्तर
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
कार्ड २३३
प्रश्न
State-dependent memory?
उत्तर
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
कार्ड २३४
प्रश्न
Relearning?
उत्तर
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
कार्ड २३५
प्रश्न
Misinformation effect?
उत्तर
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
कार्ड २३६
प्रश्न
A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
उत्तर
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
कार्ड २३७
प्रश्न
Mood-congruent memory?
उत्तर
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
कार्ड २३८
प्रश्न
Priming?
उत्तर
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
कार्ड २३९
प्रश्न
Tip-of-the-tongue state?
उत्तर
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
कार्ड २४०
प्रश्न
Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
उत्तर
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
कार्ड २४१
प्रश्न
Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
उत्तर
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
कार्ड २४२
प्रश्न
Metacognition?
उत्तर
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
कार्ड २४३
प्रश्न
Source amnesia?
उत्तर
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
कार्ड २४४
प्रश्न
Test standardization?
उत्तर
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
कार्ड २४५
प्रश्न
Reliability?
उत्तर
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
कार्ड २४६
प्रश्न
Stereotype threat?
उत्तर
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
कार्ड २४७
प्रश्न
General intelligence, or g?
उत्तर
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
कार्ड २४८
प्रश्न
Encoding failure?
उत्तर
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
कार्ड २४९
प्रश्न
Validity?
उत्तर
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
कार्ड २५०
प्रश्न
Proactive interference?
उत्तर
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
कार्ड २५१
प्रश्न
Imagination inflation?
उत्तर
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
कार्ड २५२
प्रश्न
A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
उत्तर
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
कार्ड २५३
प्रश्न
Retrieval failure?
उत्तर
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
कार्ड २५४
प्रश्न
Retroactive interference?
उत्तर
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
कार्ड २५५
प्रश्न
A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
उत्तर
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
कार्ड २५६
प्रश्न
Repression in psychodynamic theory?
उत्तर
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
कार्ड २५७
प्रश्न
Flashbulb memory?
उत्तर
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
कार्ड २५८
प्रश्न
A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
उत्तर
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
कार्ड २५९
प्रश्न
A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
उत्तर
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
कार्ड २६०
प्रश्न
Stereotype lift?
उत्तर
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
कार्ड २६१
प्रश्न
Achievement test?
उत्तर
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
कार्ड २६२
प्रश्न
Construct validity?
उत्तर
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
कार्ड २६३
प्रश्न
Test–retest reliability?
उत्तर
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
कार्ड २६४
प्रश्न
Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
उत्तर
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
कार्ड २६५
प्रश्न
Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
उत्तर
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
कार्ड २६६
प्रश्न
Aptitude test?
उत्तर
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
कार्ड २६७
प्रश्न
Traditional IQ formula?
उत्तर
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
कार्ड २६८
प्रश्न
Predictive validity?
उत्तर
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
कार्ड २६९
प्रश्न
What does a normal score distribution look like?
उत्तर
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
कार्ड २७०
प्रश्न
Split-half reliability?
उत्तर
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
कार्ड २७१
प्रश्न
Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
उत्तर
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
कार्ड २७२
प्रश्न
Flynn effect?
उत्तर
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
कार्ड २७३
प्रश्न
A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
उत्तर
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
कार्ड २७४
प्रश्न
Continuous versus stage development?
उत्तर
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
कार्ड २७५
प्रश्न
How can prenatal environment affect later development?
उत्तर
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
कार्ड २७६
प्रश्न
Teratogen?
उत्तर
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
कार्ड २७७
प्रश्न
Maturation?
उत्तर
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
कार्ड २७८
प्रश्न
Stability–change question in development?
उत्तर
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
कार्ड २७९
प्रश्न
A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
उत्तर
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
कार्ड २८०
प्रश्न
Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
उत्तर
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
कार्ड २८१
प्रश्न
Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
उत्तर
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
कार्ड २८२
प्रश्न
Fine versus gross motor skills?
उत्तर
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
कार्ड २८३
प्रश्न
Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
उत्तर
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
कार्ड २८४
प्रश्न
What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
उत्तर
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
कार्ड २८५
प्रश्न
Puberty?
उत्तर
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
कार्ड २८६
प्रश्न
Sensitive period?
उत्तर
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
कार्ड २८७
प्रश्न
What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
उत्तर
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
कार्ड २८८
प्रश्न
Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
उत्तर
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
कार्ड २८९
प्रश्न
Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
उत्तर
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
कार्ड २९०
प्रश्न
Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
उत्तर
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
कार्ड २९१
प्रश्न
Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
उत्तर
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
कार्ड २९२
प्रश्न
Menarche?
उत्तर
The first menstrual period.
कार्ड २९३
प्रश्न
Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
उत्तर
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
कार्ड २९४
प्रश्न
About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
उत्तर
About 68%.
कार्ड २९५
प्रश्न
A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
उत्तर
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
कार्ड २९६
प्रश्न
Spermarche?
उत्तर
The first ejaculation.
कार्ड २९७
प्रश्न
Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
उत्तर
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
कार्ड २९८
प्रश्न
Imprinting?
उत्तर
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
कार्ड २९९
प्रश्न
Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
उत्तर
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
कार्ड ३००
प्रश्न
Menopause?
उत्तर
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
कार्ड ३०१
प्रश्न
Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
उत्तर
Naturalistic observation.
कार्ड ३०२
प्रश्न
How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
उत्तर
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
कार्ड ३०३
प्रश्न
Gender identity?
उत्तर
A person's internal sense of their gender.
कार्ड ३०४
प्रश्न
Gender role?
उत्तर
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
कार्ड ३०५
प्रश्न
Sex versus gender?
उत्तर
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
कार्ड ३०६
प्रश्न
Common sensory change in later adulthood?
उत्तर
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
कार्ड ३०७
प्रश्न
Sexual orientation?
उत्तर
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
कार्ड ३०८
प्रश्न
Gender schema?
उत्तर
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
कार्ड ३०९
प्रश्न
Best broad view of gender development?
उत्तर
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
कार्ड ३१०
प्रश्न
Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
उत्तर
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
कार्ड ३११
प्रश्न
Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
उत्तर
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
कार्ड ३१२
प्रश्न
Schema in cognitive development?
उत्तर
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
कार्ड ३१३
प्रश्न
Sensorimotor stage?
उत्तर
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
कार्ड ३१४
प्रश्न
Preoperational stage?
उत्तर
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
कार्ड ३१५
प्रश्न
Assimilation?
उत्तर
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
कार्ड ३१६
प्रश्न
A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
उत्तर
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
कार्ड ३१७
प्रश्न
Animism in preoperational thought?
उत्तर
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
कार्ड ३१८
प्रश्न
Concrete operational stage?
उत्तर
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
कार्ड ३१९
प्रश्न
Accommodation?
उत्तर
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
कार्ड ३२०
प्रश्न
Reversibility in cognitive development?
उत्तर
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
कार्ड ३२१
प्रश्न
How can social learning shape gender expression?
उत्तर
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
कार्ड ३२२
प्रश्न
A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
उत्तर
Assimilation.
कार्ड ३२३
प्रश्न
Language?
उत्तर
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
कार्ड ३२४
प्रश्न
Cooing stage?
उत्तर
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
कार्ड ३२५
प्रश्न
Babbling stage?
उत्तर
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
कार्ड ३२६
प्रश्न
One-word stage?
उत्तर
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
कार्ड ३२७
प्रश्न
Grammar?
उत्तर
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
कार्ड ३२८
प्रश्न
A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
उत्तर
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
कार्ड ३२९
प्रश्न
Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
उत्तर
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
कार्ड ३३०
प्रश्न
A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
उत्तर
Accommodation.
कार्ड ३३१
प्रश्न
A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
उत्तर
Scaffolding.
कार्ड ३३२
प्रश्न
A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
उत्तर
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
कार्ड ३३३
प्रश्न
Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
उत्तर
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
कार्ड ३३४
प्रश्न
An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
उत्तर
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
कार्ड ३३५
प्रश्न
Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
उत्तर
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
कार्ड ३३६
प्रश्न
Formal operational stage?
उत्तर
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
कार्ड ३३७
प्रश्न
Dementia?
उत्तर
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
कार्ड ३३८
प्रश्न
Phoneme?
उत्तर
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
कार्ड ३३९
प्रश्न
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
उत्तर
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
कार्ड ३४०
प्रश्न
Temperament?
उत्तर
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
कार्ड ३४१
प्रश्न
Attachment?
उत्तर
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
कार्ड ३४२
प्रश्न
Erikson's infancy conflict?
उत्तर
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
कार्ड ३४३
प्रश्न
Microsystem?
उत्तर
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
कार्ड ३४४
प्रश्न
Erikson's toddler conflict?
उत्तर
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
कार्ड ३४५
प्रश्न
Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
उत्तर
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
कार्ड ३४६
प्रश्न
Erikson's school-age conflict?
उत्तर
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
कार्ड ३४७
प्रश्न
Mesosystem?
उत्तर
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
कार्ड ३४८
प्रश्न
Erikson's adolescent conflict?
उत्तर
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
कार्ड ३४९
प्रश्न
Erikson's young-adult conflict?
उत्तर
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
कार्ड ३५०
प्रश्न
Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
उत्तर
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
कार्ड ३५१
प्रश्न
Exosystem?
उत्तर
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
कार्ड ३५२
प्रश्न
Morpheme?
उत्तर
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
कार्ड ३५३
प्रश्न
Telegraphic speech?
उत्तर
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
७०५ कार्डे
AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
हा संच मोफत अभ्यासा
अभ्यास सुरू करण्यासाठी Nibomo उघडेल.
कार्ड ३५४
प्रश्न
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
उत्तर
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
कार्ड ३५५
प्रश्न
Macrosystem?
उत्तर
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
कार्ड ३५६
प्रश्न
Semantics?
उत्तर
The meanings of words and sentences.
कार्ड ३५७
प्रश्न
A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
उत्तर
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
कार्ड ३५८
प्रश्न
What does a sensitive period for language imply?
उत्तर
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
कार्ड ३५९
प्रश्न
Does language completely determine thought?
उत्तर
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
कार्ड ३६०
प्रश्न
Syntax?
उत्तर
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
कार्ड ३६१
प्रश्न
A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
उत्तर
Secure attachment.
कार्ड ३६२
प्रश्न
How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
उत्तर
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
कार्ड ३६३
प्रश्न
Authoritative parenting?
उत्तर
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
कार्ड ३६४
प्रश्न
Identity achievement?
उत्तर
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
कार्ड ३६५
प्रश्न
Avoidant attachment pattern?
उत्तर
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
कार्ड ३६६
प्रश्न
Classical conditioning?
उत्तर
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
कार्ड ३६७
प्रश्न
Unconditioned stimulus?
उत्तर
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
कार्ड ३६८
प्रश्न
Unconditioned response?
उत्तर
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
कार्ड ३६९
प्रश्न
Conditioned stimulus?
उत्तर
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
कार्ड ३७०
प्रश्न
Conditioned response?
उत्तर
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
कार्ड ३७१
प्रश्न
Acquisition in classical conditioning?
उत्तर
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
कार्ड ३७२
प्रश्न
During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
उत्तर
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
कार्ड ३७३
प्रश्न
Authoritarian parenting?
उत्तर
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
कार्ड ३७४
प्रश्न
Identity diffusion?
उत्तर
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
कार्ड ३७५
प्रश्न
Extinction in classical conditioning?
उत्तर
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
कार्ड ३७६
प्रश्न
Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
उत्तर
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
कार्ड ३७७
प्रश्न
Permissive parenting?
उत्तर
High warmth with few demands or limits.
कार्ड ३७८
प्रश्न
Parallel play?
उत्तर
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
कार्ड ३७९
प्रश्न
Imaginary audience?
उत्तर
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
कार्ड ३८०
प्रश्न
Identity foreclosure?
उत्तर
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
कार्ड ३८१
प्रश्न
Disorganized attachment pattern?
उत्तर
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
कार्ड ३८२
प्रश्न
Neglectful parenting?
उत्तर
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
कार्ड ३८३
प्रश्न
Chronosystem?
उत्तर
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
कार्ड ३८४
प्रश्न
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
उत्तर
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
कार्ड ३८५
प्रश्न
Personal fable?
उत्तर
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
कार्ड ३८६
प्रश्न
Identity moratorium?
उत्तर
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
कार्ड ३८७
प्रश्न
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
उत्तर
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
कार्ड ३८८
प्रश्न
Separation anxiety in infancy?
उत्तर
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
कार्ड ३८९
प्रश्न
What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
उत्तर
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
कार्ड ३९०
प्रश्न
Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
उत्तर
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
कार्ड ३९१
प्रश्न
Emerging adulthood?
उत्तर
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
कार्ड ३९२
प्रश्न
Social clock?
उत्तर
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
कार्ड ३९३
प्रश्न
Erikson's later-adult conflict?
उत्तर
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
कार्ड ३९४
प्रश्न
Possible selves?
उत्तर
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
कार्ड ३९५
प्रश्न
Stimulus generalization?
उत्तर
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
कार्ड ३९६
प्रश्न
Operant conditioning?
उत्तर
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
कार्ड ३९७
प्रश्न
Law of effect?
उत्तर
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
कार्ड ३९८
प्रश्न
Spontaneous recovery?
उत्तर
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
कार्ड ३९९
प्रश्न
Stimulus discrimination?
उत्तर
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
कार्ड ४००
प्रश्न
Reinforcement?
उत्तर
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
कार्ड ४०१
प्रश्न
Higher-order conditioning?
उत्तर
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
कार्ड ४०२
प्रश्न
Counterconditioning?
उत्तर
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
कार्ड ४०३
प्रश्न
Habituation?
उत्तर
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
कार्ड ४०४
प्रश्न
Punishment?
उत्तर
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
कार्ड ४०५
प्रश्न
Partial reinforcement?
उत्तर
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
कार्ड ४०६
प्रश्न
Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
उत्तर
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
कार्ड ४०७
प्रश्न
Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
उत्तर
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
कार्ड ४०८
प्रश्न
Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
उत्तर
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
कार्ड ४०९
प्रश्न
Fixed-ratio schedule?
उत्तर
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
कार्ड ४१०
प्रश्न
Observational learning?
उत्तर
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
कार्ड ४११
प्रश्न
A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
उत्तर
Positive reinforcement.
कार्ड ४१२
प्रश्न
Primary reinforcer?
उत्तर
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
कार्ड ४१३
प्रश्न
Variable-ratio schedule?
उत्तर
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
कार्ड ४१४
प्रश्न
Modeling?
उत्तर
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
कार्ड ४१५
प्रश्न
Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
उत्तर
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
कार्ड ४१६
प्रश्न
Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
उत्तर
Negative reinforcement.
कार्ड ४१७
प्रश्न
Conditioned reinforcer?
उत्तर
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
कार्ड ४१८
प्रश्न
A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
उत्तर
Vicarious reinforcement.
कार्ड ४१९
प्रश्न
Fixed-interval schedule?
उत्तर
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
कार्ड ४२०
प्रश्न
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
उत्तर
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
कार्ड ४२१
प्रश्न
A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
उत्तर
Positive punishment.
कार्ड ४२२
प्रश्न
Shaping?
उत्तर
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
कार्ड ४२३
प्रश्न
Extinction in operant conditioning?
उत्तर
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
कार्ड ४२४
प्रश्न
Variable-interval schedule?
उत्तर
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
कार्ड ४२५
प्रश्न
A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
उत्तर
Negative punishment.
कार्ड ४२६
प्रश्न
Learned helplessness?
उत्तर
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
कार्ड ४२७
प्रश्न
Continuous reinforcement?
उत्तर
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
कार्ड ४२८
प्रश्न
A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
उत्तर
A fixed-interval schedule.
कार्ड ४२९
प्रश्न
Discriminative stimulus?
उत्तर
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
कार्ड ४३०
प्रश्न
Operant generalization versus discrimination?
उत्तर
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
कार्ड ४३१
प्रश्न
Instinctive drift?
उत्तर
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
कार्ड ४३२
प्रश्न
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
उत्तर
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
कार्ड ४३३
प्रश्न
How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
उत्तर
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
कार्ड ४३४
प्रश्न
How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
उत्तर
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
कार्ड ४३५
प्रश्न
Vicarious conditioning?
उत्तर
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
कार्ड ४३६
प्रश्न
A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
उत्तर
A variable-interval schedule.
कार्ड ४३७
प्रश्न
Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
उत्तर
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
कार्ड ४३८
प्रश्न
Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
उत्तर
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
कार्ड ४३९
प्रश्न
Latent learning?
उत्तर
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
कार्ड ४४०
प्रश्न
Cognitive map?
उत्तर
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
कार्ड ४४१
प्रश्न
Insight learning?
उत्तर
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
कार्ड ४४२
प्रश्न
Biological preparedness?
उत्तर
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
कार्ड ४४३
प्रश्न
What can mirror-neuron activity show?
उत्तर
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
कार्ड ४४४
प्रश्न
Attribution?
उत्तर
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
कार्ड ४४५
प्रश्न
Attitude?
उत्तर
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
कार्ड ४४६
प्रश्न
Upward social comparison?
उत्तर
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
कार्ड ४४७
प्रश्न
Optimistic explanatory style?
उत्तर
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
कार्ड ४४८
प्रश्न
Situational attribution?
उत्तर
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
कार्ड ४४९
प्रश्न
A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
उत्तर
Cognitive dissonance.
कार्ड ४५०
प्रश्न
Downward social comparison?
उत्तर
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
कार्ड ४५१
प्रश्न
Internal locus of control?
उत्तर
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
कार्ड ४५२
प्रश्न
Dispositional attribution?
उत्तर
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
कार्ड ४५३
प्रश्न
Pessimistic explanatory style?
उत्तर
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
कार्ड ४५४
प्रश्न
Relative deprivation?
उत्तर
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
कार्ड ४५५
प्रश्न
External locus of control?
उत्तर
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
कार्ड ४५६
प्रश्न
Fundamental attribution error?
उत्तर
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
कार्ड ४५७
प्रश्न
Halo effect?
उत्तर
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
कार्ड ४५८
प्रश्न
Self-fulfilling prophecy?
उत्तर
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
कार्ड ४५९
प्रश्न
Mere-exposure effect?
उत्तर
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
कार्ड ४६०
प्रश्न
A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
उत्तर
The actor–observer difference.
कार्ड ४६१
प्रश्न
A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
उत्तर
The central route.
कार्ड ४६२
प्रश्न
Effort justification?
उत्तर
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
कार्ड ४६३
प्रश्न
Stereotype?
उत्तर
A generalized belief about members of a group.
कार्ड ४६४
प्रश्न
A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
उत्तर
Self-serving bias.
कार्ड ४६५
प्रश्न
A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
उत्तर
The peripheral route.
कार्ड ४६६
प्रश्न
Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
उत्तर
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
कार्ड ४६७
प्रश्न
Prejudice?
उत्तर
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
कार्ड ४६८
प्रश्न
The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:

Workload Errors

Low 2

High 8

Which attribution is better supported?
उत्तर
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
कार्ड ४६९
प्रश्न
Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
उत्तर
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
कार्ड ४७०
प्रश्न
Conformity?
उत्तर
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
कार्ड ४७१
प्रश्न
Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
उत्तर
The bystander effect.
कार्ड ४७२
प्रश्न
Diffusion of responsibility?
उत्तर
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
कार्ड ४७३
प्रश्न
How can taking on a role affect attitude?
उत्तर
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
कार्ड ४७४
प्रश्न
In-group bias?
उत्तर
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
कार्ड ४७५
प्रश्न
After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
उत्तर
The foot-in-the-door technique.
कार्ड ४७६
प्रश्न
A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
उत्तर
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
कार्ड ४७७
प्रश्न
When do attitudes best predict behavior?
उत्तर
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
कार्ड ४७८
प्रश्न
Discrimination?
उत्तर
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
कार्ड ४७९
प्रश्न
Out-group homogeneity effect?
उत्तर
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
कार्ड ४८०
प्रश्न
After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
उत्तर
The door-in-the-face technique.
कार्ड ४८१
प्रश्न
A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
उत्तर
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
कार्ड ४८२
प्रश्न
Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
उत्तर
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
कार्ड ४८३
प्रश्न
Just-world belief?
उत्तर
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
कार्ड ४८४
प्रश्न
Implicit attitude?
उत्तर
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
कार्ड ४८५
प्रश्न
Ethnocentrism?
उत्तर
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
कार्ड ४८६
प्रश्न
How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
उत्तर
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
कार्ड ४८७
प्रश्न
Normative social influence?
उत्तर
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
कार्ड ४८८
प्रश्न
Psychodynamic view of personality?
उत्तर
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
कार्ड ४८९
प्रश्न
Norm of reciprocity?
उत्तर
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
कार्ड ४९०
प्रश्न
Individualism?
उत्तर
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
कार्ड ४९१
प्रश्न
Informational social influence?
उत्तर
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
कार्ड ४९२
प्रश्न
Id?
उत्तर
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
कार्ड ४९३
प्रश्न
Altruism?
उत्तर
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
कार्ड ४९४
प्रश्न
Social norm?
उत्तर
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
कार्ड ४९५
प्रश्न
What tends to increase conformity?
उत्तर
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
कार्ड ४९६
प्रश्न
Ego?
उत्तर
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
कार्ड ४९७
प्रश्न
A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
उत्तर
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
कार्ड ४९८
प्रश्न
Collectivism?
उत्तर
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
कार्ड ४९९
प्रश्न
Obedience?
उत्तर
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
कार्ड ५००
प्रश्न
Superego?
उत्तर
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
कार्ड ५०१
प्रश्न
A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
उत्तर
Denial.
कार्ड ५०२
प्रश्न
Social-responsibility norm?
उत्तर
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
कार्ड ५०३
प्रश्न
How does proximity affect attraction?
उत्तर
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
कार्ड ५०४
प्रश्न
What tends to increase obedience?
उत्तर
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
कार्ड ५०५
प्रश्न
After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
उत्तर
Displacement.
कार्ड ५०६
प्रश्न
Social loafing?
उत्तर
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
कार्ड ५०७
प्रश्न
Multiculturalism?
उत्तर
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
कार्ड ५०८
प्रश्न
How does similarity affect attraction?
उत्तर
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
कार्ड ५०९
प्रश्न
A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
उत्तर
Projection.
कार्ड ५१०
प्रश्न
Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
उत्तर
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
कार्ड ५११
प्रश्न
Deindividuation?
उत्तर
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
कार्ड ५१२
प्रश्न
Group polarization?
उत्तर
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
कार्ड ५१३
प्रश्न
After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
उत्तर
Rationalization.
कार्ड ५१४
प्रश्न
A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
उत्तर
Groupthink.
कार्ड ५१५
प्रश्न
Pluralistic ignorance?
उत्तर
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
कार्ड ५१६
प्रश्न
Social trap?
उत्तर
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
कार्ड ५१७
प्रश्न
Reaction formation?
उत्तर
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
कार्ड ५१८
प्रश्न
Superordinate goal?
उत्तर
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
कार्ड ५१९
प्रश्न
False-consensus effect?
उत्तर
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
कार्ड ५२०
प्रश्न
Industrial-organizational psychology?
उत्तर
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
कार्ड ५२१
प्रश्न
Repression?
उत्तर
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
कार्ड ५२२
प्रश्न
Burnout?
उत्तर
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
कार्ड ५२३
प्रश्न
Unconditional positive regard?
उत्तर
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
कार्ड ५२४
प्रश्न
Trait?
उत्तर
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
कार्ड ५२५
प्रश्न
Regression as a defense mechanism?
उत्तर
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
कार्ड ५२६
प्रश्न
Reciprocal determinism?
उत्तर
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
कार्ड ५२७
प्रश्न
Self-efficacy?
उत्तर
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
कार्ड ५२८
प्रश्न
Self-concept in humanistic theory?
उत्तर
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
कार्ड ५२९
प्रश्न
Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
उत्तर
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
कार्ड ५३०
प्रश्न
A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
उत्तर
Openness.
कार्ड ५३१
प्रश्न
Personality inventory?
उत्तर
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
कार्ड ५३२
प्रश्न
Self-actualizing tendency?
उत्तर
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
कार्ड ५३३
प्रश्न
Self-esteem?
उत्तर
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
कार्ड ५३४
प्रश्न
Instinct in motivation research?
उत्तर
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
कार्ड ५३५
प्रश्न
A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
उत्तर
Conscientiousness.
कार्ड ५३६
प्रश्न
Projective test?
उत्तर
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
कार्ड ५३७
प्रश्न
How does factor analysis help trait research?
उत्तर
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
कार्ड ५३८
प्रश्न
Drive-reduction theory?
उत्तर
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
कार्ड ५३९
प्रश्न
A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
उत्तर
Extraversion.
कार्ड ५४०
प्रश्न
Person–situation debate?
उत्तर
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
कार्ड ५४१
प्रश्न
A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
उत्तर
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
कार्ड ५४२
प्रश्न
Homeostasis?
उत्तर
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
कार्ड ५४३
प्रश्न
Incentive theory?
उत्तर
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
कार्ड ५४४
प्रश्न
Big Five agreeableness?
उत्तर
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
कार्ड ५४५
प्रश्न
A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
उत्तर
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
कार्ड ५४६
प्रश्न
A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
उत्तर
An approach–approach conflict.
कार्ड ५४७
प्रश्न
Arousal theory of motivation?
उत्तर
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
कार्ड ५४८
प्रश्न
Big Five emotional stability?
उत्तर
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
कार्ड ५४९
प्रश्न
What regulates hunger?
उत्तर
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
कार्ड ५५०
प्रश्न
Three broad components of emotion?
उत्तर
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
कार्ड ५५१
प्रश्न
Self-determination theory?
उत्तर
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
कार्ड ५५२
प्रश्न
Emotion regulation?
उत्तर
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
कार्ड ५५३
प्रश्न
Sensation-seeking?
उत्तर
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
कार्ड ५५४
प्रश्न
Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
उत्तर
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
कार्ड ५५५
प्रश्न
Intrinsic motivation?
उत्तर
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
कार्ड ५५६
प्रश्न
Display rules?
उत्तर
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
कार्ड ५५७
प्रश्न
Arousal and performance relationship?
उत्तर
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
कार्ड ५५८
प्रश्न
A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
उत्तर
An approach–avoidance conflict.
कार्ड ५५९
प्रश्न
Extrinsic motivation?
उत्तर
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
कार्ड ५६०
प्रश्न
Achievement motivation?
उत्तर
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
कार्ड ५६१
प्रश्न
Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
उत्तर
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
कार्ड ५६२
प्रश्न
A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
उत्तर
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
कार्ड ५६३
प्रश्न
Overjustification effect?
उत्तर
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
कार्ड ५६४
प्रश्न
Belongingness motivation?
उत्तर
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
कार्ड ५६५
प्रश्न
Study time changed after students chose their own topic:

Condition Mean minutes

Assigned topic 34

Chosen topic 47

What is the observed mean difference?
उत्तर
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
कार्ड ५६६
प्रश्न
Facial-feedback effect?
उत्तर
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
कार्ड ५६७
प्रश्न
Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
उत्तर
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
कार्ड ५६८
प्रश्न
A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
उत्तर
Cognitive reappraisal.
कार्ड ५६९
प्रश्न
Broaden-and-build view?
उत्तर
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
कार्ड ५७०
प्रश्न
Which emotions often appear across cultures?
उत्तर
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
कार्ड ५७१
प्रश्न
How can the same arousal become different emotions?
उत्तर
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
कार्ड ५७२
प्रश्न
Expressive suppression?
उत्तर
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
कार्ड ५७३
प्रश्न
How does acute stress affect the body?
उत्तर
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
कार्ड ५७४
प्रश्न
Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
उत्तर
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
कार्ड ५७५
प्रश्न
In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
उत्तर
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
कार्ड ५७६
प्रश्न
A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
उत्तर
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
कार्ड ५७७
प्रश्न
Health psychology?
उत्तर
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
कार्ड ५७८
प्रश्न
Positive psychology?
उत्तर
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
कार्ड ५७९
प्रश्न
Stress?
उत्तर
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
कार्ड ५८०
प्रश्न
A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
उत्तर
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
कार्ड ५८१
प्रश्न
Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
उत्तर
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
कार्ड ५८२
प्रश्न
Resilience?
उत्तर
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
कार्ड ५८३
प्रश्न
Stressor?
उत्तर
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
कार्ड ५८४
प्रश्न
General adaptation syndrome?
उत्तर
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
कार्ड ५८५
प्रश्न
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
उत्तर
Problem-focused coping.
कार्ड ५८६
प्रश्न
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
उत्तर
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
कार्ड ५८७
प्रश्न
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
उत्तर
Primary appraisal.
कार्ड ५८८
प्रश्न
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
उत्तर
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
कार्ड ५८९
प्रश्न
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
उत्तर
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
कार्ड ५९०
प्रश्न
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
उत्तर
Emotion-focused coping.
कार्ड ५९१
प्रश्न
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
उत्तर
Secondary appraisal.
कार्ड ५९२
प्रश्न
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
उत्तर
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
कार्ड ५९३
प्रश्न
Adverse childhood experiences?
उत्तर
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
कार्ड ५९४
प्रश्न
How can social support protect health?
उत्तर
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
कार्ड ५९५
प्रश्न
Eustress versus distress?
उत्तर
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
कार्ड ५९६
प्रश्न
Tend-and-befriend response?
उत्तर
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
कार्ड ५९७
प्रश्न
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
उत्तर
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
कार्ड ५९८
प्रश्न
Biofeedback?
उत्तर
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
कार्ड ५९९
प्रश्न
How does perceived control affect stress?
उत्तर
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
कार्ड ६००
प्रश्न
Psychoneuroimmunology?
उत्तर
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
कार्ड ६०१
प्रश्न
Subjective well-being?
उत्तर
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
कार्ड ६०२
प्रश्न
Psychological disorder?
उत्तर
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
कार्ड ६०३
प्रश्न
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
उत्तर
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
कार्ड ६०४
प्रश्न
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
उत्तर
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
कार्ड ६०५
प्रश्न
Signature strengths?
उत्तर
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
कार्ड ६०६
प्रश्न
Biopsychosocial model?
उत्तर
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
कार्ड ६०७
प्रश्न
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
उत्तर
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
कार्ड ६०८
प्रश्न
Posttraumatic growth?
उत्तर
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
कार्ड ६०९
प्रश्न
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
उत्तर
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
कार्ड ६१०
प्रश्न
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
उत्तर
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
कार्ड ६११
प्रश्न
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
उत्तर
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
कार्ड ६१२
प्रश्न
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
उत्तर
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
कार्ड ६१३
प्रश्न
Biological explanation of disorder?
उत्तर
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
कार्ड ६१४
प्रश्न
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
उत्तर
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
कार्ड ६१५
प्रश्न
Purpose of the DSM?
उत्तर
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
कार्ड ६१६
प्रश्न
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
उत्तर
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
कार्ड ६१७
प्रश्न
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
उत्तर
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
कार्ड ६१८
प्रश्न
Autism spectrum disorder?
उत्तर
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
कार्ड ६१९
प्रश्न
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
उत्तर
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
कार्ड ६२०
प्रश्न
Major depressive disorder?
उत्तर
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
कार्ड ६२१
प्रश्न
Specific phobia?
उत्तर
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
कार्ड ६२२
प्रश्न
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
उत्तर
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
कार्ड ६२३
प्रश्न
Dissociative amnesia?
उत्तर
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
कार्ड ६२४
प्रश्न
Bipolar I disorder?
उत्तर
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
कार्ड ६२५
प्रश्न
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
उत्तर
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
कार्ड ६२६
प्रश्न
Anorexia nervosa?
उत्तर
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
कार्ड ६२७
प्रश्न
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
उत्तर
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
कार्ड ६२८
प्रश्न
Bipolar II disorder?
उत्तर
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
कार्ड ६२९
प्रश्न
Purpose of the ICD?
उत्तर
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
कार्ड ६३०
प्रश्न
Bulimia nervosa?
उत्तर
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
कार्ड ६३१
प्रश्न
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
उत्तर
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
कार्ड ६३२
प्रश्न
Ataque de nervios?
उत्तर
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
कार्ड ६३३
प्रश्न
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
उत्तर
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
कार्ड ६३४
प्रश्न
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
उत्तर
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
कार्ड ६३५
प्रश्न
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
उत्तर
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
कार्ड ६३६
प्रश्न
Comorbidity?
उत्तर
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
कार्ड ६३७
प्रश्न
Humanistic explanation of distress?
उत्तर
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
कार्ड ६३८
प्रश्न
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
उत्तर
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
कार्ड ६३९
प्रश्न
Stigma around mental disorder?
उत्तर
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
कार्ड ६४०
प्रश्न
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
उत्तर
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
कार्ड ६४१
प्रश्न
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
उत्तर
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
कार्ड ६४२
प्रश्न
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
उत्तर
Interrater reliability.
कार्ड ६४३
प्रश्न
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
उत्तर
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
कार्ड ६४४
प्रश्न
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
उत्तर
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
कार्ड ६४५
प्रश्न
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
उत्तर
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
कार्ड ६४६
प्रश्न
Delusion?
उत्तर
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
कार्ड ६४७
प्रश्न
Agoraphobia?
उत्तर
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
कार्ड ६४८
प्रश्न
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
उत्तर
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
कार्ड ६४९
प्रश्न
Eclectic approach to disorder?
उत्तर
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
कार्ड ६५०
प्रश्न
Hallucination?
उत्तर
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
कार्ड ६५१
प्रश्न
Panic disorder?
उत्तर
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
कार्ड ६५२
प्रश्न
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
उत्तर
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
कार्ड ६५३
प्रश्न
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
उत्तर
The diathesis–stress model.
कार्ड ६५४
प्रश्न
Cluster A personality disorders?
उत्तर
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
कार्ड ६५५
प्रश्न
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
उत्तर
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
कार्ड ६५६
प्रश्न
Evidence-based treatment?
उत्तर
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
कार्ड ६५७
प्रश्न
Therapeutic alliance?
उत्तर
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
कार्ड ६५८
प्रश्न
Cultural humility in therapy?
उत्तर
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
कार्ड ६५९
प्रश्न
Deinstitutionalization?
उत्तर
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
कार्ड ६६०
प्रश्न
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
उत्तर
Exposure therapy.
कार्ड ६६१
प्रश्न
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
उत्तर
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
कार्ड ६६२
प्रश्न
Four medication categories in the course?
उत्तर
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
कार्ड ६६३
प्रश्न
Depressive cognitive triad?
उत्तर
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
कार्ड ६६४
प्रश्न
Applied behavior analysis?
उत्तर
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
कार्ड ६६५
प्रश्न
Psychosurgery?
उत्तर
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
कार्ड ६६६
प्रश्न
Free association?
उत्तर
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
कार्ड ६६७
प्रश्न
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
उत्तर
Cognitive restructuring.
कार्ड ६६८
प्रश्न
One advantage of group therapy?
उत्तर
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
कार्ड ६६९
प्रश्न
Lobotomy?
उत्तर
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
कार्ड ६७०
प्रश्न
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
उत्तर
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
कार्ड ६७१
प्रश्न
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
उत्तर
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
कार्ड ६७२
प्रश्न
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
उत्तर
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
कार्ड ६७३
प्रश्न
Social anxiety disorder?
उत्तर
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
कार्ड ६७४
प्रश्न
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
उत्तर
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
कार्ड ६७५
प्रश्न
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
उत्तर
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
कार्ड ६७६
प्रश्न
Dissociative fugue?
उत्तर
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
कार्ड ६७७
प्रश्न
Cluster B personality disorders?
उत्तर
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
कार्ड ६७८
प्रश्न
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
उत्तर
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
कार्ड ६७९
प्रश्न
Catatonia?
उत्तर
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
कार्ड ६८०
प्रश्न
Manic episode?
उत्तर
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
कार्ड ६८१
प्रश्न
Dissociative identity disorder?
उत्तर
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
कार्ड ६८२
प्रश्न
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
उत्तर
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
कार्ड ६८३
प्रश्न
Cluster C personality disorders?
उत्तर
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
कार्ड ६८४
प्रश्न
Taijin kyofusho?
उत्तर
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
कार्ड ६८५
प्रश्न
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
उत्तर
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
कार्ड ६८६
प्रश्न
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
उत्तर
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
कार्ड ६८७
प्रश्न
Hypomanic episode?
उत्तर
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
कार्ड ६८८
प्रश्न
Generalized anxiety disorder?
उत्तर
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
कार्ड ६८९
प्रश्न
Hoarding disorder?
उत्तर
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
कार्ड ६९०
प्रश्न
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
उत्तर
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
कार्ड ६९१
प्रश्न
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
उत्तर
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
कार्ड ६९२
प्रश्न
Persistent depressive disorder?
उत्तर
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
कार्ड ६९३
प्रश्न
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
उत्तर
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
कार्ड ६९४
प्रश्न
Systematic desensitization?
उत्तर
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
कार्ड ६९५
प्रश्न
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
उत्तर
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
कार्ड ६९६
प्रश्न
Dialectical behavior therapy?
उत्तर
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
कार्ड ६९७
प्रश्न
Integrity in therapy ethics?
उत्तर
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
कार्ड ६९८
प्रश्न
Aversion therapy?
उत्तर
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
कार्ड ६९९
प्रश्न
Tardive dyskinesia?
उत्तर
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
कार्ड ७००
प्रश्न
ECT versus TMS?
उत्तर
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
कार्ड ७०१
प्रश्न
Respect for rights and dignity?
उत्तर
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
कार्ड ७०२
प्रश्न
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
उत्तर
A token economy.
कार्ड ७०३
प्रश्न
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
उत्तर
Person-centered therapy.
कार्ड ७०४
प्रश्न
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
उत्तर
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
कार्ड ७०५
प्रश्न
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
उत्तर
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.

Workload	Errors
Low	2
High	8

Condition	Mean minutes
Assigned topic	34
Chosen topic	47

७०५ कार्डे