AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
Review all five AP® Psychology units with 705 independently written cards covering concepts, scenarios, research methods, data interpretation, and evidence-based reasoning.
Kuhusu fungu hili
Review all five units in the AP® Psychology course framework with 705 independently written English flashcards. The deck covers Biological Bases of Behavior, Cognition, Development and Learning, Social Psychology and Personality, and Mental and Physical Health. It supports all four science practices: Concept Application, Research Methods and Design, Data Interpretation, and Argumentation.
What the cards ask you to retrieve
- Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
- Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
- Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
- Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
- Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.
The order follows Units 1–5, keeps related material within the current or next topic, and introduces prerequisites and chronological steps first. Definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are separated by at least three unrelated cards. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences remain adjacent only when that progression helps learning.
What's deliberately left out
The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or use long essay prompts. It also leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.
Check the official AP Psychology course page for authoritative requirements. Psychological facts and the course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, ordering, and inherited generated cover, to the extent those rights exist.
This is an independent, unofficial study aid. It isn't affiliated with, endorsed by, sponsored by, or official material from College Board or the AP Program. AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this product. No College Board examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or trade dress were copied or adapted.
Kadi za fungu hili
Kadi namba 1
Swali
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
Jibu
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
Kadi namba 2
Swali
Central nervous system?
Jibu
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
Kadi namba 3
Swali
Main role of the spinal cord?
Jibu
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
Kadi namba 4
Swali
Scores are
4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?Jibu
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
Kadi namba 5
Swali
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
Jibu
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
Kadi namba 6
Swali
Peripheral nervous system?
Jibu
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
Kadi namba 7
Swali
Reflex arc?
Jibu
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
Kadi namba 8
Swali
Reflex times are
180, 190, 210, 260, 410milliseconds. What is the median?Jibu
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
Kadi namba 9
Swali
Heritability?
Jibu
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
Kadi namba 10
Swali
Autonomic nervous system?
Jibu
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
Kadi namba 11
Swali
Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
Jibu
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
Kadi namba 12
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Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
Jibu
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
Kadi namba 13
Swali
Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
Jibu
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
Kadi namba 14
Swali
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
Jibu
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
Kadi namba 15
Swali
Natural selection?
Jibu
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
Kadi namba 16
Swali
Somatic nervous system?
Jibu
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
Kadi namba 17
Swali
Sensory neurons?
Jibu
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
Kadi namba 18
Swali
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
Jibu
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
Kadi namba 19
Swali
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
Jibu
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
Kadi namba 20
Swali
Sympathetic nervous system?
Jibu
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
Kadi namba 21
Swali
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
Jibu
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
Kadi namba 22
Swali
Motor neurons?
Jibu
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
Kadi namba 23
Swali
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
Jibu
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
Kadi namba 24
Swali
Parasympathetic nervous system?
Jibu
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
Kadi namba 25
Swali
Resting potential?
Jibu
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
Kadi namba 26
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Interneurons?
Jibu
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
Kadi namba 27
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Adrenaline's behavioral role?
Jibu
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
Kadi namba 28
Swali
Frontal lobes?
Jibu
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
Kadi namba 29
Swali
Neural threshold?
Jibu
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
Kadi namba 30
Swali
Corpus callosum?
Jibu
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
Kadi namba 31
Swali
Leptin's role in eating?
Jibu
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
Kadi namba 32
Swali
Temporal lobes?
Jibu
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
Kadi namba 33
Swali
Depolarization during an action potential?
Jibu
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
Kadi namba 34
Swali
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
Jibu
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
Kadi namba 35
Swali
Ghrelin's role in eating?
Jibu
It helps stimulate hunger.
Kadi namba 36
Swali
Drug agonist?
Jibu
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
Kadi namba 37
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Action potential?
Jibu
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
Kadi namba 38
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Reuptake?
Jibu
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
Kadi namba 39
Swali
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
Jibu
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
Kadi namba 40
Swali
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
Jibu
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
Kadi namba 41
Swali
Refractory period?
Jibu
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
Kadi namba 42
Swali
Melatonin's role?
Jibu
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
Kadi namba 43
Swali
Drug antagonist?
Jibu
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
Kadi namba 44
Swali
Stimulants?
Jibu
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
Kadi namba 45
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Drug tolerance?
Jibu
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
Kadi namba 46
Swali
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Jibu
Multiple sclerosis.
Kadi namba 47
Swali
All-or-none principle?
Jibu
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
Kadi namba 48
Swali
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
Jibu
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
Kadi namba 49
Swali
GABA's major psychological function?
Jibu
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
Kadi namba 50
Swali
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
Jibu
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
Kadi namba 51
Swali
Reuptake inhibitor?
Jibu
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
Kadi namba 52
Swali
Depressants?
Jibu
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
Kadi namba 53
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Drug withdrawal?
Jibu
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
Kadi namba 54
Swali
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Jibu
Myasthenia gravis.
Kadi namba 55
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Glial cells?
Jibu
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
Kadi namba 56
Swali
Endorphins?
Jibu
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
Kadi namba 57
Swali
Substance P?
Jibu
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
Kadi namba 58
Swali
Acetylcholine's major functions?
Jibu
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
Kadi namba 59
Swali
Opioids?
Jibu
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
Kadi namba 60
Swali
Hallucinogens?
Jibu
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
Kadi namba 61
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Addiction?
Jibu
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
Kadi namba 62
Swali
Parietal lobes?
Jibu
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
Kadi namba 63
Swali
Consciousness?
Jibu
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
Kadi namba 64
Swali
Circadian rhythm?
Jibu
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
Kadi namba 65
Swali
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
Jibu
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
Kadi namba 66
Swali
Occipital lobes?
Jibu
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
Kadi namba 67
Swali
What does split-brain research reveal?
Jibu
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
Kadi namba 68
Swali
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
Jibu
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
Kadi namba 69
Swali
NREM-1 sleep?
Jibu
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
Kadi namba 70
Swali
Motor cortex?
Jibu
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
Kadi namba 71
Swali
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
Jibu
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
Kadi namba 72
Swali
Brainstem's core function?
Jibu
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
Kadi namba 73
Swali
NREM-2 sleep?
Jibu
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
Kadi namba 74
Swali
Somatosensory cortex?
Jibu
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
Kadi namba 75
Swali
Medulla's main functions?
Jibu
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Kadi namba 76
Swali
Reticular activating system?
Jibu
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
Kadi namba 77
Swali
NREM-3 sleep?
Jibu
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
Kadi namba 78
Swali
Cerebellum's main functions?
Jibu
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
Kadi namba 79
Swali
Thalamus?
Jibu
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
Kadi namba 80
Swali
Hypothalamus?
Jibu
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
Kadi namba 81
Swali
REM sleep?
Jibu
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
Kadi namba 82
Swali
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
Jibu
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
Kadi namba 83
Swali
Amygdala?
Jibu
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
Kadi namba 84
Swali
Hippocampus?
Jibu
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
Kadi namba 85
Swali
How does sleep change across a typical night?
Jibu
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
Kadi namba 86
Swali
Contralateral brain control?
Jibu
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
Kadi namba 87
Swali
What does an EEG measure?
Jibu
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
Kadi namba 88
Swali
Reward-center activity?
Jibu
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
Kadi namba 89
Swali
Neuroplasticity?
Jibu
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
Kadi namba 90
Swali
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
Jibu
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
Kadi namba 91
Swali
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
Jibu
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
Kadi namba 92
Swali
Insomnia?
Jibu
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
Kadi namba 93
Swali
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
Jibu
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
Kadi namba 94
Swali
Absolute threshold?
Jibu
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
Kadi namba 95
Swali
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
Jibu
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
Kadi namba 96
Swali
Narcolepsy?
Jibu
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
Kadi namba 97
Swali
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
Jibu
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
Kadi namba 98
Swali
Difference threshold?
Jibu
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
Kadi namba 99
Swali
Consolidation view of dreams?
Jibu
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
Kadi namba 100
Swali
REM sleep behavior disorder?
Jibu
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
Kadi namba 101
Swali
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
Jibu
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
Kadi namba 102
Swali
Weber's law?
Jibu
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
Kadi namba 103
Swali
Two supported functions of sleep?
Jibu
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
Kadi namba 104
Swali
Sleep apnea?
Jibu
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
Kadi namba 105
Swali
REM rebound?
Jibu
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
Kadi namba 106
Swali
Signal detection theory?
Jibu
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
Kadi namba 107
Swali
Sensory transduction?
Jibu
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
Kadi namba 108
Swali
Vestibular sense?
Jibu
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
Kadi namba 109
Swali
Somnambulism?
Jibu
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
Kadi namba 110
Swali
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
Jibu
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
Kadi namba 111
Swali
What begins visual transduction?
Jibu
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
Kadi namba 112
Swali
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
Jibu
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
Kadi namba 113
Swali
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
Jibu
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
Kadi namba 114
Swali
Accommodation in vision?
Jibu
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
Kadi namba 115
Swali
Cones?
Jibu
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
Kadi namba 116
Swali
What begins auditory transduction?
Jibu
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
Kadi namba 117
Swali
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
Jibu
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
Kadi namba 118
Swali
How is smell unusual among the senses?
Jibu
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
Kadi namba 119
Swali
Kinesthesia?
Jibu
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
Kadi namba 120
Swali
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
Jibu
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
Kadi namba 121
Swali
Nearsightedness?
Jibu
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
Kadi namba 122
Swali
Pheromones?
Jibu
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
Kadi namba 123
Swali
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
Jibu
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
Kadi namba 124
Swali
Volley theory of pitch?
Jibu
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
Kadi namba 125
Swali
Farsightedness?
Jibu
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
Kadi namba 126
Swali
Six taste qualities named in the course?
Jibu
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
Kadi namba 127
Swali
Phantom-limb sensation?
Jibu
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
Kadi namba 128
Swali
Sensory interaction?
Jibu
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
Kadi namba 129
Swali
What causes most color-vision deficiency?
Jibu
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
Kadi namba 130
Swali
Prosopagnosia?
Jibu
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
Kadi namba 131
Swali
Rods?
Jibu
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
Kadi namba 132
Swali
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
Jibu
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
Kadi namba 133
Swali
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
Jibu
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
Kadi namba 134
Swali
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
Jibu
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
Kadi namba 135
Swali
What do the semicircular canals detect?
Jibu
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
Kadi namba 136
Swali
Synesthesia?
Jibu
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
Kadi namba 137
Swali
Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
Jibu
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
Kadi namba 138
Swali
Blindsight?
Jibu
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
Kadi namba 139
Swali
Sensory adaptation?
Jibu
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
Kadi namba 140
Swali
Gate-control view of pain?
Jibu
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
Kadi namba 141
Swali
Bottom-up processing?
Jibu
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
Kadi namba 142
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Concept?
Jibu
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Kadi namba 143
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Fixation in problem solving?
Jibu
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
Kadi namba 144
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Algorithm?
Jibu
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
Kadi namba 145
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Top-down processing?
Jibu
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
Kadi namba 146
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Confirmation bias?
Jibu
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
Kadi namba 147
Swali
Retinal disparity?
Jibu
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
Kadi namba 148
Swali
Heuristic?
Jibu
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
Kadi namba 149
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Selective attention?
Jibu
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
Kadi namba 150
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Figure–ground organization?
Jibu
Separating the object of attention from its background.
Kadi namba 151
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Convergence as a depth cue?
Jibu
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
Kadi namba 152
Swali
Representativeness heuristic?
Jibu
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
Kadi namba 153
Swali
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
Jibu
Inattentional blindness.
Kadi namba 154
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Gestalt proximity principle?
Jibu
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
Kadi namba 155
Swali
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
Jibu
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
Kadi namba 156
Swali
Cocktail-party effect?
Jibu
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
Kadi namba 157
Swali
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
Jibu
Change blindness.
Kadi namba 158
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Gestalt similarity principle?
Jibu
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
Kadi namba 159
Swali
Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
Jibu
Linear perspective.
Kadi namba 160
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Perceptual constancy?
Jibu
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
Kadi namba 161
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Perceptual set?
Jibu
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
Kadi namba 162
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Gestalt closure principle?
Jibu
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
Kadi namba 163
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One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
Jibu
The blocking object, using interposition.
Kadi namba 164
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Apparent motion?
Jibu
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
Kadi namba 165
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Availability heuristic?
Jibu
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
Kadi namba 166
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Divergent thinking?
Jibu
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
Kadi namba 167
Swali
A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
Jibu
Relative clarity.
Kadi namba 168
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Prototype?
Jibu
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
Kadi namba 169
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Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
Jibu
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
Kadi namba 170
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Convergent thinking?
Jibu
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
Kadi namba 171
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A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
Jibu
Texture gradient.
Kadi namba 172
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Belief perseverance?
Jibu
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
Kadi namba 173
Swali
Explicit memory?
Jibu
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
Kadi namba 174
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Three stores in the multi-store model?
Jibu
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Kadi namba 175
Swali
Seeing an object only in its usual role?
Jibu
Functional fixedness.
Kadi namba 176
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Mental set?
Jibu
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
Kadi namba 177
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Episodic memory?
Jibu
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
Kadi namba 178
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Working memory?
Jibu
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
Kadi namba 179
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Insight?
Jibu
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Kadi namba 180
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Framing effect?
Jibu
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
Kadi namba 181
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Implicit memory?
Jibu
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
Kadi namba 182
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Overconfidence bias?
Jibu
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
Kadi namba 183
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Anchoring bias?
Jibu
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
Kadi namba 184
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Schema in thinking?
Jibu
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
Kadi namba 185
Swali
Procedural memory?
Jibu
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
Kadi namba 186
Swali
Gambler's fallacy?
Jibu
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
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Sunk-cost fallacy?
Jibu
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
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Executive functions?
Jibu
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
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How can priming affect judgment?
Jibu
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
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Central executive in working memory?
Jibu
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
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Serial-position effect?
Jibu
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
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Semantic memory?
Jibu
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
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Levels-of-processing principle?
Jibu
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
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Automatic processing?
Jibu
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
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Maintenance rehearsal?
Jibu
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
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Prospective memory?
Jibu
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
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Primacy effect?
Jibu
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
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Long-term memory?
Jibu
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
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Highly superior autobiographical memory?
Jibu
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
Kadi namba 200
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Effortful processing?
Jibu
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
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Elaborative rehearsal?
Jibu
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
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Memory consolidation?
Jibu
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
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Recency effect?
Jibu
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
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Spacing effect?
Jibu
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
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Testing effect?
Jibu
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
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Chunking?
Jibu
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
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Mnemonic?
Jibu
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
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Why organize material into a hierarchy?
Jibu
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
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How can a schema help encoding?
Jibu
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
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Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
Jibu
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
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Iconic memory?
Jibu
A very brief visual sensory memory.
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Recall?
Jibu
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
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Retrieval cue?
Jibu
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
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Encoding-specificity principle?
Jibu
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
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Context-dependent memory?
Jibu
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
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Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
Jibu
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
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Echoic memory?
Jibu
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
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Anterograde amnesia?
Jibu
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
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Phonological loop?
Jibu
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
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Cerebellum's memory role?
Jibu
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
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Why is short-term memory described as limited?
Jibu
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
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Retrograde amnesia?
Jibu
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
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Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
Jibu
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
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How can the amygdala affect memory?
Jibu
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
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Visuospatial sketchpad?
Jibu
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
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Long-term potentiation?
Jibu
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
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Infantile amnesia?
Jibu
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
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Alzheimer's disease?
Jibu
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
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Scores are
2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?Jibu
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because
9 - 2 = 7.Kadi namba 230
Swali
Recognition?
Jibu
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
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Why is memory called reconstructive?
Jibu
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
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Storage decay?
Jibu
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
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State-dependent memory?
Jibu
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
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Relearning?
Jibu
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
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Misinformation effect?
Jibu
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
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A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
Jibu
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
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Mood-congruent memory?
Jibu
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
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Priming?
Jibu
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
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Tip-of-the-tongue state?
Jibu
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
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Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
Jibu
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
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Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
Jibu
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
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Metacognition?
Jibu
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
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Source amnesia?
Jibu
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
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Test standardization?
Jibu
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
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Reliability?
Jibu
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
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Stereotype threat?
Jibu
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
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General intelligence, or g?
Jibu
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
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Encoding failure?
Jibu
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
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Validity?
Jibu
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
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Proactive interference?
Jibu
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
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Imagination inflation?
Jibu
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
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A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
Jibu
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
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Retrieval failure?
Jibu
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
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Retroactive interference?
Jibu
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
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A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
Jibu
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
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Repression in psychodynamic theory?
Jibu
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
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Flashbulb memory?
Jibu
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
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A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
Jibu
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
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A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
Jibu
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
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Stereotype lift?
Jibu
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
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Achievement test?
Jibu
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
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Construct validity?
Jibu
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
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Test–retest reliability?
Jibu
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
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Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
Jibu
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
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Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
Jibu
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
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Aptitude test?
Jibu
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
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Traditional IQ formula?
Jibu
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
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Predictive validity?
Jibu
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
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What does a normal score distribution look like?
Jibu
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
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Split-half reliability?
Jibu
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
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Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
Jibu
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
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Flynn effect?
Jibu
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
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A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
Jibu
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
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Continuous versus stage development?
Jibu
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
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How can prenatal environment affect later development?
Jibu
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
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Teratogen?
Jibu
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
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Maturation?
Jibu
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
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Stability–change question in development?
Jibu
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
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A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
Jibu
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
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Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
Jibu
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
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Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
Jibu
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
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Fine versus gross motor skills?
Jibu
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
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Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
Jibu
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
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What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
Jibu
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
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Puberty?
Jibu
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
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Sensitive period?
Jibu
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
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What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
Jibu
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
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Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
Jibu
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
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Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
Jibu
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
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Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
Jibu
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
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Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
Jibu
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
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Menarche?
Jibu
The first menstrual period.
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Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
Jibu
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
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About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
Jibu
About 68%.
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A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
Jibu
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
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Spermarche?
Jibu
The first ejaculation.
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Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
Jibu
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
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Imprinting?
Jibu
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
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Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
Jibu
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
Kadi namba 300
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Menopause?
Jibu
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
Kadi namba 301
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Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
Jibu
Naturalistic observation.
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How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
Jibu
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
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Gender identity?
Jibu
A person's internal sense of their gender.
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Gender role?
Jibu
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
Kadi namba 305
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Sex versus gender?
Jibu
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
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Common sensory change in later adulthood?
Jibu
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
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Sexual orientation?
Jibu
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
Kadi namba 308
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Gender schema?
Jibu
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
Kadi namba 309
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Best broad view of gender development?
Jibu
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
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Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
Jibu
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
Kadi namba 311
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Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
Jibu
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
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Schema in cognitive development?
Jibu
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
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Sensorimotor stage?
Jibu
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
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Preoperational stage?
Jibu
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
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Assimilation?
Jibu
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
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A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
Jibu
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
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Animism in preoperational thought?
Jibu
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
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Concrete operational stage?
Jibu
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
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Accommodation?
Jibu
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
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Reversibility in cognitive development?
Jibu
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
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How can social learning shape gender expression?
Jibu
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
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A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
Jibu
Assimilation.
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Language?
Jibu
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
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Cooing stage?
Jibu
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
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Babbling stage?
Jibu
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
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One-word stage?
Jibu
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
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Grammar?
Jibu
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
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A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
Jibu
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
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Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
Jibu
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
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A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
Jibu
Accommodation.
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A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
Jibu
Scaffolding.
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A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
Jibu
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
Kadi namba 333
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Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
Jibu
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
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An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
Jibu
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
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Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
Jibu
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
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Formal operational stage?
Jibu
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
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Dementia?
Jibu
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
Kadi namba 338
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Phoneme?
Jibu
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
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Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
Jibu
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
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Temperament?
Jibu
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
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Attachment?
Jibu
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
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Erikson's infancy conflict?
Jibu
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
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Microsystem?
Jibu
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
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Erikson's toddler conflict?
Jibu
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
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Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
Jibu
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
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Erikson's school-age conflict?
Jibu
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
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Mesosystem?
Jibu
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
Kadi namba 348
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Erikson's adolescent conflict?
Jibu
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
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Erikson's young-adult conflict?
Jibu
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
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Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
Jibu
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
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Exosystem?
Jibu
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
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Morpheme?
Jibu
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
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Telegraphic speech?
Jibu
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
kadi 705
AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
Soma fungu hili bila malipoNibomo itafunguka ili uanze kusoma.
Kadi namba 354
Swali
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
Jibu
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
Kadi namba 355
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Macrosystem?
Jibu
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
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Semantics?
Jibu
The meanings of words and sentences.
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A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
Jibu
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
Kadi namba 358
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What does a sensitive period for language imply?
Jibu
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
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Does language completely determine thought?
Jibu
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
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Syntax?
Jibu
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
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A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
Jibu
Secure attachment.
Kadi namba 362
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How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
Jibu
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
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Authoritative parenting?
Jibu
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
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Identity achievement?
Jibu
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
Kadi namba 365
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Avoidant attachment pattern?
Jibu
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
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Classical conditioning?
Jibu
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
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Unconditioned stimulus?
Jibu
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
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Unconditioned response?
Jibu
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
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Conditioned stimulus?
Jibu
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
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Conditioned response?
Jibu
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
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Acquisition in classical conditioning?
Jibu
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
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During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
Jibu
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
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Authoritarian parenting?
Jibu
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
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Identity diffusion?
Jibu
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
Kadi namba 375
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Extinction in classical conditioning?
Jibu
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
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Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
Jibu
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
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Permissive parenting?
Jibu
High warmth with few demands or limits.
Kadi namba 378
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Parallel play?
Jibu
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
Kadi namba 379
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Imaginary audience?
Jibu
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
Kadi namba 380
Swali
Identity foreclosure?
Jibu
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
Kadi namba 381
Swali
Disorganized attachment pattern?
Jibu
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
Kadi namba 382
Swali
Neglectful parenting?
Jibu
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
Kadi namba 383
Swali
Chronosystem?
Jibu
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
Kadi namba 384
Swali
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
Jibu
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
Kadi namba 385
Swali
Personal fable?
Jibu
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
Kadi namba 386
Swali
Identity moratorium?
Jibu
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
Kadi namba 387
Swali
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
Jibu
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
Kadi namba 388
Swali
Separation anxiety in infancy?
Jibu
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
Kadi namba 389
Swali
What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
Jibu
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
Kadi namba 390
Swali
Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
Jibu
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
Kadi namba 391
Swali
Emerging adulthood?
Jibu
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
Kadi namba 392
Swali
Social clock?
Jibu
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
Kadi namba 393
Swali
Erikson's later-adult conflict?
Jibu
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
Kadi namba 394
Swali
Possible selves?
Jibu
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
Kadi namba 395
Swali
Stimulus generalization?
Jibu
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
Kadi namba 396
Swali
Operant conditioning?
Jibu
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
Kadi namba 397
Swali
Law of effect?
Jibu
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
Kadi namba 398
Swali
Spontaneous recovery?
Jibu
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
Kadi namba 399
Swali
Stimulus discrimination?
Jibu
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
Kadi namba 400
Swali
Reinforcement?
Jibu
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
Kadi namba 401
Swali
Higher-order conditioning?
Jibu
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
Kadi namba 402
Swali
Counterconditioning?
Jibu
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
Kadi namba 403
Swali
Habituation?
Jibu
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
Kadi namba 404
Swali
Punishment?
Jibu
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
Kadi namba 405
Swali
Partial reinforcement?
Jibu
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
Kadi namba 406
Swali
Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
Jibu
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
Kadi namba 407
Swali
Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
Jibu
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
Kadi namba 408
Swali
Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
Jibu
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
Kadi namba 409
Swali
Fixed-ratio schedule?
Jibu
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
Kadi namba 410
Swali
Observational learning?
Jibu
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
Kadi namba 411
Swali
A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
Jibu
Positive reinforcement.
Kadi namba 412
Swali
Primary reinforcer?
Jibu
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
Kadi namba 413
Swali
Variable-ratio schedule?
Jibu
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
Kadi namba 414
Swali
Modeling?
Jibu
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
Kadi namba 415
Swali
Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
Jibu
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
Kadi namba 416
Swali
Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
Jibu
Negative reinforcement.
Kadi namba 417
Swali
Conditioned reinforcer?
Jibu
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
Kadi namba 418
Swali
A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
Jibu
Vicarious reinforcement.
Kadi namba 419
Swali
Fixed-interval schedule?
Jibu
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
Kadi namba 420
Swali
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
Jibu
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
Kadi namba 421
Swali
A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
Jibu
Positive punishment.
Kadi namba 422
Swali
Shaping?
Jibu
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
Kadi namba 423
Swali
Extinction in operant conditioning?
Jibu
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
Kadi namba 424
Swali
Variable-interval schedule?
Jibu
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
Kadi namba 425
Swali
A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
Jibu
Negative punishment.
Kadi namba 426
Swali
Learned helplessness?
Jibu
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
Kadi namba 427
Swali
Continuous reinforcement?
Jibu
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
Kadi namba 428
Swali
A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
Jibu
A fixed-interval schedule.
Kadi namba 429
Swali
Discriminative stimulus?
Jibu
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
Kadi namba 430
Swali
Operant generalization versus discrimination?
Jibu
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
Kadi namba 431
Swali
Instinctive drift?
Jibu
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
Kadi namba 432
Swali
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
Jibu
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
Kadi namba 433
Swali
How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
Jibu
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
Kadi namba 434
Swali
How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
Jibu
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
Kadi namba 435
Swali
Vicarious conditioning?
Jibu
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
Kadi namba 436
Swali
A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
Jibu
A variable-interval schedule.
Kadi namba 437
Swali
Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
Jibu
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
Kadi namba 438
Swali
Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
Jibu
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
Kadi namba 439
Swali
Latent learning?
Jibu
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
Kadi namba 440
Swali
Cognitive map?
Jibu
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
Kadi namba 441
Swali
Insight learning?
Jibu
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
Kadi namba 442
Swali
Biological preparedness?
Jibu
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
Kadi namba 443
Swali
What can mirror-neuron activity show?
Jibu
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
Kadi namba 444
Swali
Attribution?
Jibu
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
Kadi namba 445
Swali
Attitude?
Jibu
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
Kadi namba 446
Swali
Upward social comparison?
Jibu
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
Kadi namba 447
Swali
Optimistic explanatory style?
Jibu
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
Kadi namba 448
Swali
Situational attribution?
Jibu
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
Kadi namba 449
Swali
A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
Jibu
Cognitive dissonance.
Kadi namba 450
Swali
Downward social comparison?
Jibu
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
Kadi namba 451
Swali
Internal locus of control?
Jibu
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
Kadi namba 452
Swali
Dispositional attribution?
Jibu
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
Kadi namba 453
Swali
Pessimistic explanatory style?
Jibu
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
Kadi namba 454
Swali
Relative deprivation?
Jibu
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
Kadi namba 455
Swali
External locus of control?
Jibu
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
Kadi namba 456
Swali
Fundamental attribution error?
Jibu
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
Kadi namba 457
Swali
Halo effect?
Jibu
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
Kadi namba 458
Swali
Self-fulfilling prophecy?
Jibu
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
Kadi namba 459
Swali
Mere-exposure effect?
Jibu
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
Kadi namba 460
Swali
A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
Jibu
The actor–observer difference.
Kadi namba 461
Swali
A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
Jibu
The central route.
Kadi namba 462
Swali
Effort justification?
Jibu
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
Kadi namba 463
Swali
Stereotype?
Jibu
A generalized belief about members of a group.
Kadi namba 464
Swali
A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
Jibu
Self-serving bias.
Kadi namba 465
Swali
A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
Jibu
The peripheral route.
Kadi namba 466
Swali
Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
Jibu
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
Kadi namba 467
Swali
Prejudice?
Jibu
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
Kadi namba 468
Swali
The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:
Workload Errors Low 2 High 8 Which attribution is better supported?
Jibu
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
Kadi namba 469
Swali
Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
Jibu
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
Kadi namba 470
Swali
Conformity?
Jibu
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
Kadi namba 471
Swali
Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
Jibu
The bystander effect.
Kadi namba 472
Swali
Diffusion of responsibility?
Jibu
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
Kadi namba 473
Swali
How can taking on a role affect attitude?
Jibu
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
Kadi namba 474
Swali
In-group bias?
Jibu
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
Kadi namba 475
Swali
After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
Jibu
The foot-in-the-door technique.
Kadi namba 476
Swali
A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
Jibu
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
Kadi namba 477
Swali
When do attitudes best predict behavior?
Jibu
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
Kadi namba 478
Swali
Discrimination?
Jibu
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
Kadi namba 479
Swali
Out-group homogeneity effect?
Jibu
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
Kadi namba 480
Swali
After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
Jibu
The door-in-the-face technique.
Kadi namba 481
Swali
A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
Jibu
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
Kadi namba 482
Swali
Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
Jibu
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
Kadi namba 483
Swali
Just-world belief?
Jibu
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
Kadi namba 484
Swali
Implicit attitude?
Jibu
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
Kadi namba 485
Swali
Ethnocentrism?
Jibu
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
Kadi namba 486
Swali
How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
Jibu
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
Kadi namba 487
Swali
Normative social influence?
Jibu
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
Kadi namba 488
Swali
Psychodynamic view of personality?
Jibu
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
Kadi namba 489
Swali
Norm of reciprocity?
Jibu
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
Kadi namba 490
Swali
Individualism?
Jibu
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
Kadi namba 491
Swali
Informational social influence?
Jibu
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
Kadi namba 492
Swali
Id?
Jibu
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
Kadi namba 493
Swali
Altruism?
Jibu
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
Kadi namba 494
Swali
Social norm?
Jibu
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
Kadi namba 495
Swali
What tends to increase conformity?
Jibu
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
Kadi namba 496
Swali
Ego?
Jibu
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
Kadi namba 497
Swali
A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
Jibu
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
Kadi namba 498
Swali
Collectivism?
Jibu
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
Kadi namba 499
Swali
Obedience?
Jibu
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
Kadi namba 500
Swali
Superego?
Jibu
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
Kadi namba 501
Swali
A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
Jibu
Denial.
Kadi namba 502
Swali
Social-responsibility norm?
Jibu
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
Kadi namba 503
Swali
How does proximity affect attraction?
Jibu
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
Kadi namba 504
Swali
What tends to increase obedience?
Jibu
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
Kadi namba 505
Swali
After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
Jibu
Displacement.
Kadi namba 506
Swali
Social loafing?
Jibu
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
Kadi namba 507
Swali
Multiculturalism?
Jibu
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
Kadi namba 508
Swali
How does similarity affect attraction?
Jibu
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
Kadi namba 509
Swali
A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
Jibu
Projection.
Kadi namba 510
Swali
Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
Jibu
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
Kadi namba 511
Swali
Deindividuation?
Jibu
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
Kadi namba 512
Swali
Group polarization?
Jibu
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
Kadi namba 513
Swali
After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
Jibu
Rationalization.
Kadi namba 514
Swali
A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
Jibu
Groupthink.
Kadi namba 515
Swali
Pluralistic ignorance?
Jibu
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
Kadi namba 516
Swali
Social trap?
Jibu
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
Kadi namba 517
Swali
Reaction formation?
Jibu
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
Kadi namba 518
Swali
Superordinate goal?
Jibu
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
Kadi namba 519
Swali
False-consensus effect?
Jibu
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
Kadi namba 520
Swali
Industrial-organizational psychology?
Jibu
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
Kadi namba 521
Swali
Repression?
Jibu
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
Kadi namba 522
Swali
Burnout?
Jibu
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
Kadi namba 523
Swali
Unconditional positive regard?
Jibu
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
Kadi namba 524
Swali
Trait?
Jibu
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
Kadi namba 525
Swali
Regression as a defense mechanism?
Jibu
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
Kadi namba 526
Swali
Reciprocal determinism?
Jibu
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
Kadi namba 527
Swali
Self-efficacy?
Jibu
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
Kadi namba 528
Swali
Self-concept in humanistic theory?
Jibu
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
Kadi namba 529
Swali
Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
Jibu
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
Kadi namba 530
Swali
A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Jibu
Openness.
Kadi namba 531
Swali
Personality inventory?
Jibu
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
Kadi namba 532
Swali
Self-actualizing tendency?
Jibu
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
Kadi namba 533
Swali
Self-esteem?
Jibu
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
Kadi namba 534
Swali
Instinct in motivation research?
Jibu
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
Kadi namba 535
Swali
A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Jibu
Conscientiousness.
Kadi namba 536
Swali
Projective test?
Jibu
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
Kadi namba 537
Swali
How does factor analysis help trait research?
Jibu
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
Kadi namba 538
Swali
Drive-reduction theory?
Jibu
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
Kadi namba 539
Swali
A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Jibu
Extraversion.
Kadi namba 540
Swali
Person–situation debate?
Jibu
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
Kadi namba 541
Swali
A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
Jibu
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
Kadi namba 542
Swali
Homeostasis?
Jibu
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
Kadi namba 543
Swali
Incentive theory?
Jibu
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
Kadi namba 544
Swali
Big Five agreeableness?
Jibu
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
Kadi namba 545
Swali
A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
Jibu
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
Kadi namba 546
Swali
A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
Jibu
An approach–approach conflict.
Kadi namba 547
Swali
Arousal theory of motivation?
Jibu
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
Kadi namba 548
Swali
Big Five emotional stability?
Jibu
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
Kadi namba 549
Swali
What regulates hunger?
Jibu
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
Kadi namba 550
Swali
Three broad components of emotion?
Jibu
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
Kadi namba 551
Swali
Self-determination theory?
Jibu
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
Kadi namba 552
Swali
Emotion regulation?
Jibu
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
Kadi namba 553
Swali
Sensation-seeking?
Jibu
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
Kadi namba 554
Swali
Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
Jibu
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
Kadi namba 555
Swali
Intrinsic motivation?
Jibu
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
Kadi namba 556
Swali
Display rules?
Jibu
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
Kadi namba 557
Swali
Arousal and performance relationship?
Jibu
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
Kadi namba 558
Swali
A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
Jibu
An approach–avoidance conflict.
Kadi namba 559
Swali
Extrinsic motivation?
Jibu
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
Kadi namba 560
Swali
Achievement motivation?
Jibu
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
Kadi namba 561
Swali
Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
Jibu
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
Kadi namba 562
Swali
A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
Jibu
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
Kadi namba 563
Swali
Overjustification effect?
Jibu
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
Kadi namba 564
Swali
Belongingness motivation?
Jibu
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
Kadi namba 565
Swali
Study time changed after students chose their own topic:
Condition Mean minutes Assigned topic 34 Chosen topic 47 What is the observed mean difference?
Jibu
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
Kadi namba 566
Swali
Facial-feedback effect?
Jibu
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
Kadi namba 567
Swali
Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
Jibu
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
Kadi namba 568
Swali
A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
Jibu
Cognitive reappraisal.
Kadi namba 569
Swali
Broaden-and-build view?
Jibu
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
Kadi namba 570
Swali
Which emotions often appear across cultures?
Jibu
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
Kadi namba 571
Swali
How can the same arousal become different emotions?
Jibu
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
Kadi namba 572
Swali
Expressive suppression?
Jibu
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
Kadi namba 573
Swali
How does acute stress affect the body?
Jibu
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
Kadi namba 574
Swali
Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
Jibu
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
Kadi namba 575
Swali
In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
Jibu
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
Kadi namba 576
Swali
A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
Jibu
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
Kadi namba 577
Swali
Health psychology?
Jibu
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
Kadi namba 578
Swali
Positive psychology?
Jibu
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
Kadi namba 579
Swali
Stress?
Jibu
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
Kadi namba 580
Swali
A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
Jibu
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
Kadi namba 581
Swali
Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
Jibu
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
Kadi namba 582
Swali
Resilience?
Jibu
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
Kadi namba 583
Swali
Stressor?
Jibu
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
Kadi namba 584
Swali
General adaptation syndrome?
Jibu
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
Kadi namba 585
Swali
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
Jibu
Problem-focused coping.
Kadi namba 586
Swali
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
Jibu
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
Kadi namba 587
Swali
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
Jibu
Primary appraisal.
Kadi namba 588
Swali
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
Jibu
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
Kadi namba 589
Swali
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
Jibu
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
Kadi namba 590
Swali
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
Jibu
Emotion-focused coping.
Kadi namba 591
Swali
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
Jibu
Secondary appraisal.
Kadi namba 592
Swali
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
Jibu
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
Kadi namba 593
Swali
Adverse childhood experiences?
Jibu
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
Kadi namba 594
Swali
How can social support protect health?
Jibu
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
Kadi namba 595
Swali
Eustress versus distress?
Jibu
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
Kadi namba 596
Swali
Tend-and-befriend response?
Jibu
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
Kadi namba 597
Swali
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
Jibu
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
Kadi namba 598
Swali
Biofeedback?
Jibu
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
Kadi namba 599
Swali
How does perceived control affect stress?
Jibu
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
Kadi namba 600
Swali
Psychoneuroimmunology?
Jibu
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
Kadi namba 601
Swali
Subjective well-being?
Jibu
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
Kadi namba 602
Swali
Psychological disorder?
Jibu
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
Kadi namba 603
Swali
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
Jibu
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
Kadi namba 604
Swali
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
Jibu
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
Kadi namba 605
Swali
Signature strengths?
Jibu
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
Kadi namba 606
Swali
Biopsychosocial model?
Jibu
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
Kadi namba 607
Swali
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
Jibu
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
Kadi namba 608
Swali
Posttraumatic growth?
Jibu
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
Kadi namba 609
Swali
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
Jibu
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
Kadi namba 610
Swali
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
Jibu
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
Kadi namba 611
Swali
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
Jibu
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
Kadi namba 612
Swali
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
Jibu
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
Kadi namba 613
Swali
Biological explanation of disorder?
Jibu
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
Kadi namba 614
Swali
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
Jibu
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
Kadi namba 615
Swali
Purpose of the DSM?
Jibu
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
Kadi namba 616
Swali
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
Jibu
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
Kadi namba 617
Swali
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
Jibu
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
Kadi namba 618
Swali
Autism spectrum disorder?
Jibu
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
Kadi namba 619
Swali
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
Jibu
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
Kadi namba 620
Swali
Major depressive disorder?
Jibu
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
Kadi namba 621
Swali
Specific phobia?
Jibu
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
Kadi namba 622
Swali
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
Jibu
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
Kadi namba 623
Swali
Dissociative amnesia?
Jibu
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
Kadi namba 624
Swali
Bipolar I disorder?
Jibu
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
Kadi namba 625
Swali
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
Jibu
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
Kadi namba 626
Swali
Anorexia nervosa?
Jibu
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
Kadi namba 627
Swali
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
Jibu
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
Kadi namba 628
Swali
Bipolar II disorder?
Jibu
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
Kadi namba 629
Swali
Purpose of the ICD?
Jibu
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
Kadi namba 630
Swali
Bulimia nervosa?
Jibu
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
Kadi namba 631
Swali
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
Jibu
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
Kadi namba 632
Swali
Ataque de nervios?
Jibu
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
Kadi namba 633
Swali
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
Jibu
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
Kadi namba 634
Swali
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
Jibu
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
Kadi namba 635
Swali
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
Jibu
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
Kadi namba 636
Swali
Comorbidity?
Jibu
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
Kadi namba 637
Swali
Humanistic explanation of distress?
Jibu
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
Kadi namba 638
Swali
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
Jibu
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
Kadi namba 639
Swali
Stigma around mental disorder?
Jibu
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
Kadi namba 640
Swali
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
Jibu
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
Kadi namba 641
Swali
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
Jibu
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
Kadi namba 642
Swali
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
Jibu
Interrater reliability.
Kadi namba 643
Swali
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
Jibu
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
Kadi namba 644
Swali
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
Jibu
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
Kadi namba 645
Swali
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
Jibu
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
Kadi namba 646
Swali
Delusion?
Jibu
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
Kadi namba 647
Swali
Agoraphobia?
Jibu
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
Kadi namba 648
Swali
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
Jibu
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
Kadi namba 649
Swali
Eclectic approach to disorder?
Jibu
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
Kadi namba 650
Swali
Hallucination?
Jibu
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
Kadi namba 651
Swali
Panic disorder?
Jibu
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
Kadi namba 652
Swali
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
Jibu
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
Kadi namba 653
Swali
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
Jibu
The diathesis–stress model.
Kadi namba 654
Swali
Cluster A personality disorders?
Jibu
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
Kadi namba 655
Swali
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
Jibu
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
Kadi namba 656
Swali
Evidence-based treatment?
Jibu
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
Kadi namba 657
Swali
Therapeutic alliance?
Jibu
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
Kadi namba 658
Swali
Cultural humility in therapy?
Jibu
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
Kadi namba 659
Swali
Deinstitutionalization?
Jibu
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
Kadi namba 660
Swali
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
Jibu
Exposure therapy.
Kadi namba 661
Swali
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
Jibu
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
Kadi namba 662
Swali
Four medication categories in the course?
Jibu
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
Kadi namba 663
Swali
Depressive cognitive triad?
Jibu
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
Kadi namba 664
Swali
Applied behavior analysis?
Jibu
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
Kadi namba 665
Swali
Psychosurgery?
Jibu
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
Kadi namba 666
Swali
Free association?
Jibu
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
Kadi namba 667
Swali
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
Jibu
Cognitive restructuring.
Kadi namba 668
Swali
One advantage of group therapy?
Jibu
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
Kadi namba 669
Swali
Lobotomy?
Jibu
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
Kadi namba 670
Swali
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
Jibu
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
Kadi namba 671
Swali
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
Jibu
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
Kadi namba 672
Swali
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
Jibu
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
Kadi namba 673
Swali
Social anxiety disorder?
Jibu
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
Kadi namba 674
Swali
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
Jibu
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
Kadi namba 675
Swali
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
Jibu
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
Kadi namba 676
Swali
Dissociative fugue?
Jibu
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
Kadi namba 677
Swali
Cluster B personality disorders?
Jibu
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
Kadi namba 678
Swali
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
Jibu
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
Kadi namba 679
Swali
Catatonia?
Jibu
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
Kadi namba 680
Swali
Manic episode?
Jibu
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
Kadi namba 681
Swali
Dissociative identity disorder?
Jibu
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
Kadi namba 682
Swali
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
Jibu
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
Kadi namba 683
Swali
Cluster C personality disorders?
Jibu
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
Kadi namba 684
Swali
Taijin kyofusho?
Jibu
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
Kadi namba 685
Swali
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
Jibu
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
Kadi namba 686
Swali
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
Jibu
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
Kadi namba 687
Swali
Hypomanic episode?
Jibu
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
Kadi namba 688
Swali
Generalized anxiety disorder?
Jibu
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
Kadi namba 689
Swali
Hoarding disorder?
Jibu
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
Kadi namba 690
Swali
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
Jibu
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
Kadi namba 691
Swali
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
Jibu
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
Kadi namba 692
Swali
Persistent depressive disorder?
Jibu
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
Kadi namba 693
Swali
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
Jibu
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
Kadi namba 694
Swali
Systematic desensitization?
Jibu
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
Kadi namba 695
Swali
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
Jibu
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
Kadi namba 696
Swali
Dialectical behavior therapy?
Jibu
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
Kadi namba 697
Swali
Integrity in therapy ethics?
Jibu
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
Kadi namba 698
Swali
Aversion therapy?
Jibu
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
Kadi namba 699
Swali
Tardive dyskinesia?
Jibu
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
Kadi namba 700
Swali
ECT versus TMS?
Jibu
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
Kadi namba 701
Swali
Respect for rights and dignity?
Jibu
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
Kadi namba 702
Swali
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
Jibu
A token economy.
Kadi namba 703
Swali
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
Jibu
Person-centered therapy.
Kadi namba 704
Swali
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
Jibu
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
Kadi namba 705
Swali
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
Jibu
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.
kadi 705
AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
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