AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
Review all five AP® Psychology units with 705 independently written cards covering concepts, scenarios, research methods, data interpretation, and evidence-based reasoning.
За това тесте
Review all five units in the AP® Psychology course framework with 705 independently written English flashcards. The deck covers Biological Bases of Behavior, Cognition, Development and Learning, Social Psychology and Personality, and Mental and Physical Health. It supports all four science practices: Concept Application, Research Methods and Design, Data Interpretation, and Argumentation.
What the cards ask you to retrieve
- Concept → meaning or function: recall a concise definition, mechanism, or distinction.
- Scenario → concept: identify the idea that best explains a behavior, symptom pattern, or result.
- Study description → method: identify a design, variable, sampling decision, ethical safeguard, limitation, or warranted conclusion.
- Data representation → interpretation: read a compact table, distribution, graph pattern, statistic, or calculation and decide what the evidence shows.
- Claim + evidence → reasoning: connect evidence to a defensible psychological explanation.
The order follows Units 1–5, keeps related material within the current or next topic, and introduces prerequisites and chronological steps first. Definition/application, foundation/claim, scenario, cue, and near-duplicate variants are separated by at least three unrelated cards. Explicit prerequisite and chronological sequences remain adjacent only when that progression helps learning.
What's deliberately left out
The deck doesn't mechanically reverse every definition, diagnose personal anecdotes, offer treatment advice, or use long essay prompts. It also leaves out detailed genetics, neuron labeling, out-of-scope theories, unlisted disorders, names-and-dates trivia, and exhaustive study permutations.
Check the official AP Psychology course page for authoritative requirements. Psychological facts and the course outline aren't claimed as original. The CC0 label applies only to the independently written prompts, answers, organization, metadata, ordering, and inherited generated cover, to the extent those rights exist.
This is an independent, unofficial study aid. It isn't affiliated with, endorsed by, sponsored by, or official material from College Board or the AP Program. AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this product. No College Board examination questions, scoring materials, curriculum text, source prose, logos, or trade dress were copied or adapted.
Карти в това тесте
Карта 1
Въпрос
Nature in the nature–nurture question?
Отговор
Inherited biological influences on behavior and mental processes.
Карта 2
Въпрос
Central nervous system?
Отговор
The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
Карта 3
Въпрос
Main role of the spinal cord?
Отговор
It carries messages between brain and body and organizes some reflexes.
Карта 4
Въпрос
Scores are
4, 6, 8, 10. What is the mean?Отговор
7, found by dividing the total of 28 by 4 scores.
Карта 5
Въпрос
Nurture in the nature–nurture question?
Отговор
Environmental influences, such as family, culture, education, and experience.
Карта 6
Въпрос
Peripheral nervous system?
Отговор
The nerves that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
Карта 7
Въпрос
Reflex arc?
Отговор
A rapid neural pathway that can produce a response through the spinal cord before conscious brain processing.
Карта 8
Въпрос
Reflex times are
180, 190, 210, 260, 410milliseconds. What is the median?Отговор
210 milliseconds, the middle score after ordering the five values.
Карта 9
Въпрос
Heritability?
Отговор
The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that is associated with genetic differences. It doesn't describe one person's trait.
Карта 10
Въпрос
Autonomic nervous system?
Отговор
The peripheral division that regulates involuntary functions of glands and internal organs.
Карта 11
Въпрос
Evolutionary perspective on behavior?
Отговор
It asks how natural selection may have favored psychological traits that helped survival or reproduction.
Карта 12
Въпрос
Why is eugenics scientifically and ethically invalid?
Отговор
It misuses heredity claims to rank people and justify coercion, while ignoring environmental influence, human rights, and the complexity of traits.
Карта 13
Въпрос
Why isn't behavior explained by genes or environment alone?
Отговор
They interact. A biological tendency can be strengthened, weakened, or redirected by experience.
Карта 14
Въпрос
Researchers compare a trait across biological relatives who share different amounts of DNA. Which method is this?
Отговор
A family study; twin comparisons are one example, but shared environments still limit causal conclusions.
Карта 15
Въпрос
Natural selection?
Отговор
Traits that support survival or reproduction can become more common across generations.
Карта 16
Въпрос
Somatic nervous system?
Отговор
The peripheral division that carries sensory information and controls voluntary skeletal-muscle movement.
Карта 17
Въпрос
Sensory neurons?
Отговор
They carry incoming information from sensory receptors toward the central nervous system.
Карта 18
Въпрос
Which design compares adoptees with both biological and adoptive relatives?
Отговор
An adoption study, used to separate some hereditary and environmental similarities.
Карта 19
Въпрос
Twins show a strong trait correlation. What keeps this result from proving genetic causation?
Отговор
Correlation doesn't isolate genes from shared environments or other confounding variables.
Карта 20
Въпрос
Sympathetic nervous system?
Отговор
The autonomic division that mobilizes energy during challenge or threat.
Карта 21
Въпрос
Evidence shows a genetic risk predicts an outcome only under chronic stress. Best claim?
Отговор
The outcome reflects a gene–environment interaction, not a purely genetic effect.
Карта 22
Въпрос
Motor neurons?
Отговор
They carry outgoing commands from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.
Карта 23
Въпрос
Sleep duration and stress are correlated. What directionality problem limits a causal conclusion?
Отговор
The result cannot show whether less sleep raises stress, stress reduces sleep, or both directions operate.
Карта 24
Въпрос
Parasympathetic nervous system?
Отговор
The autonomic division that calms the body and supports rest, digestion, and recovery.
Карта 25
Въпрос
Resting potential?
Отговор
The neuron's stable negative charge when it isn't firing, maintained by unequal ion concentrations across the membrane.
Карта 26
Въпрос
Interneurons?
Отговор
Neurons within the central nervous system that process information and connect other neurons.
Карта 27
Въпрос
Adrenaline's behavioral role?
Отговор
It helps mobilize the body during arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
Карта 28
Въпрос
Frontal lobes?
Отговор
Planning, judgment, impulse control, working memory, voluntary movement, and aspects of speech.
Карта 29
Въпрос
Neural threshold?
Отговор
The minimum stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
Карта 30
Въпрос
Corpus callosum?
Отговор
The large fiber tract that carries information between the cerebral hemispheres.
Карта 31
Въпрос
Leptin's role in eating?
Отговор
It signals stored energy and helps reduce hunger.
Карта 32
Въпрос
Temporal lobes?
Отговор
Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory, and object recognition.
Карта 33
Въпрос
Depolarization during an action potential?
Отговор
Positive ions enter the neuron, making the membrane charge less negative and then briefly positive.
Карта 34
Въпрос
Dopamine's major psychological functions?
Отговор
Movement, motivation, reward learning, attention, and reinforcement.
Карта 35
Въпрос
Ghrelin's role in eating?
Отговор
It helps stimulate hunger.
Карта 36
Въпрос
Drug agonist?
Отговор
A substance that increases a neurotransmitter's effect by activating its receptor or supporting its action.
Карта 37
Въпрос
Action potential?
Отговор
A brief electrical impulse that travels along a neuron after threshold is reached.
Карта 38
Въпрос
Reuptake?
Отговор
The sending neuron reabsorbs neurotransmitter from the synapse after release.
Карта 39
Въпрос
Serotonin's major psychological functions?
Отговор
Mood, sleep, appetite, and arousal regulation.
Карта 40
Въпрос
Glutamate's major psychological functions?
Отговор
It is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter and supports learning and memory.
Карта 41
Въпрос
Refractory period?
Отговор
A short recovery interval after firing when the neuron resets and can't immediately produce another full action potential.
Карта 42
Въпрос
Melatonin's role?
Отговор
It helps regulate circadian timing and promotes sleepiness in darkness.
Карта 43
Въпрос
Drug antagonist?
Отговор
A substance that blocks or reduces a neurotransmitter's effect at its receptor.
Карта 44
Въпрос
Stimulants?
Отговор
Psychoactive drugs that increase central nervous system activity and alertness.
Карта 45
Въпрос
Drug tolerance?
Отговор
A reduced response after repeated use, so a larger dose may be needed for the same effect.
Карта 46
Въпрос
Damage to myelin slows messages in the central nervous system. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Отговор
Multiple sclerosis.
Карта 47
Въпрос
All-or-none principle?
Отговор
A neuron fires a full action potential once threshold is reached; stronger input changes firing rate, not impulse size.
Карта 48
Въпрос
Norepinephrine's major psychological functions?
Отговор
Alertness, arousal, attention, and the stress response.
Карта 49
Въпрос
GABA's major psychological function?
Отговор
It is the brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter and reduces neural activity.
Карта 50
Въпрос
Oxytocin's behavioral role?
Отговор
It supports social bonding and also contributes to childbirth and lactation.
Карта 51
Въпрос
Reuptake inhibitor?
Отговор
A drug that keeps more neurotransmitter in the synapse by slowing reabsorption.
Карта 52
Въпрос
Depressants?
Отговор
Psychoactive drugs that reduce central nervous system activity.
Карта 53
Въпрос
Drug withdrawal?
Отговор
Physical or psychological symptoms that can appear when regular drug use is reduced or stopped.
Карта 54
Въпрос
Antibodies disrupt acetylcholine receptors at muscles, causing weakness. Which disorder illustrates this problem?
Отговор
Myasthenia gravis.
Карта 55
Въпрос
Glial cells?
Отговор
Cells that support, nourish, insulate, protect, and help regulate neurons and their connections.
Карта 56
Въпрос
Endorphins?
Отговор
Natural neurotransmitters that reduce pain and can produce pleasure.
Карта 57
Въпрос
Substance P?
Отговор
A neurotransmitter involved in pain signaling.
Карта 58
Въпрос
Acetylcholine's major functions?
Отговор
Muscle action, learning, memory, and attention.
Карта 59
Въпрос
Opioids?
Отговор
Drugs that bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and often producing relaxation or euphoria.
Карта 60
Въпрос
Hallucinogens?
Отговор
Drugs that alter perception and can produce sensory experiences without matching external input.
Карта 61
Въпрос
Addiction?
Отговор
Compulsive substance use or behavior that continues despite harmful consequences and is difficult to control.
Карта 62
Въпрос
Parietal lobes?
Отговор
Body-sense processing, spatial attention, and integrating sensory information.
Карта 63
Въпрос
Consciousness?
Отговор
Awareness of internal experiences and the surrounding environment.
Карта 64
Въпрос
Circadian rhythm?
Отговор
A roughly 24-hour biological cycle that helps regulate sleep and wakefulness.
Карта 65
Въпрос
Damage causes slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Likely region?
Отговор
Broca's area, usually in the left frontal lobe.
Карта 66
Въпрос
Occipital lobes?
Отговор
Primary cortical processing of visual information.
Карта 67
Въпрос
What does split-brain research reveal?
Отговор
When the corpus callosum is severed, the hemispheres can process some information independently.
Карта 68
Въпрос
How does the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate circadian rhythm?
Отговор
It uses light information from the eyes to coordinate the body's roughly 24-hour clock.
Карта 69
Въпрос
NREM-1 sleep?
Отговор
The light transition into sleep, sometimes accompanied by hypnagogic sensations.
Карта 70
Въпрос
Motor cortex?
Отговор
A frontal-lobe strip that directs voluntary movement.
Карта 71
Въпрос
Damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech and poor comprehension. Likely region?
Отговор
Wernicke's area, usually in the left temporal lobe.
Карта 72
Въпрос
Brainstem's core function?
Отговор
It supports basic survival functions and connects the brain with the spinal cord.
Карта 73
Въпрос
NREM-2 sleep?
Отговор
A light sleep stage marked by sleep spindles and K-complexes.
Карта 74
Въпрос
Somatosensory cortex?
Отговор
A parietal-lobe strip that registers touch and body-position information.
Карта 75
Въпрос
Medulla's main functions?
Отговор
It regulates vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Карта 76
Въпрос
Reticular activating system?
Отговор
A brainstem network involved in alertness, arousal, and the sleep–wake cycle.
Карта 77
Въпрос
NREM-3 sleep?
Отговор
Deep slow-wave sleep, associated with physical restoration and difficult awakening.
Карта 78
Въпрос
Cerebellum's main functions?
Отговор
Balance, coordinated movement, procedural learning, and timing.
Карта 79
Въпрос
Thalamus?
Отговор
A relay that directs most sensory information to the cerebral cortex and helps regulate alertness.
Карта 80
Въпрос
Hypothalamus?
Отговор
It helps regulate homeostasis, hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior, and endocrine activity.
Карта 81
Въпрос
REM sleep?
Отговор
A stage with vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, active brain patterns, and skeletal-muscle paralysis.
Карта 82
Въпрос
Why is the pituitary called a master gland?
Отговор
Its hormones influence other endocrine glands, under the hypothalamus's control.
Карта 83
Въпрос
Amygdala?
Отговор
A limbic structure involved in processing emotion, threat, and emotional learning.
Карта 84
Въпрос
Hippocampus?
Отговор
A limbic structure essential for forming new explicit memories and spatial memory.
Карта 85
Въпрос
How does sleep change across a typical night?
Отговор
NREM and REM repeat in cycles; REM periods generally lengthen toward morning.
Карта 86
Въпрос
Contralateral brain control?
Отговор
Each cerebral hemisphere mainly receives sensory input from and controls movement on the opposite side of the body.
Карта 87
Въпрос
What does an EEG measure?
Отговор
Electrical activity recorded from the scalp, with strong timing information but limited spatial precision.
Карта 88
Въпрос
Reward-center activity?
Отговор
Activity in neural reward pathways can reinforce behaviors that predict desirable outcomes.
Карта 89
Въпрос
Neuroplasticity?
Отговор
The nervous system's ability to change its organization or function through experience, learning, or injury.
Карта 90
Въпрос
Which method shows brain activity changing during a task?
Отговор
A functional brain-imaging method, such as fMRI or PET, rather than a structural scan alone.
Карта 91
Въпрос
A patient loses a function after damage to one brain region. What is the cautious conclusion?
Отговор
The region contributes to the function, but the behavior may depend on a wider network.
Карта 92
Въпрос
Insomnia?
Отговор
Persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or obtaining restorative sleep.
Карта 93
Въпрос
How do wavelength and amplitude shape sound?
Отговор
Wavelength relates to frequency and perceived pitch; amplitude relates to intensity and perceived loudness.
Карта 94
Въпрос
Absolute threshold?
Отговор
The minimum stimulation detected 50% of the time.
Карта 95
Въпрос
Activation-synthesis view of dreams?
Отговор
The brain builds a story while interpreting internally generated neural activity during sleep.
Карта 96
Въпрос
Narcolepsy?
Отговор
A disorder involving sudden sleep attacks and abnormal entry into REM sleep.
Карта 97
Въпрос
Why can jet lag disrupt sleep?
Отговор
The internal circadian clock is temporarily out of sync with the new light–dark schedule.
Карта 98
Въпрос
Difference threshold?
Отговор
The smallest change between stimuli detected 50% of the time.
Карта 99
Въпрос
Consolidation view of dreams?
Отговор
Dreaming may reflect the brain organizing and integrating recent memories.
Карта 100
Въпрос
REM sleep behavior disorder?
Отговор
Loss of normal REM muscle paralysis, allowing a person to act out dreams.
Карта 101
Въпрос
Why can rotating shift work impair sleep?
Отговор
Frequent schedule changes force the circadian system to keep readjusting.
Карта 102
Въпрос
Weber's law?
Отговор
The noticeable difference between two stimuli is a constant proportion of the original intensity.
Карта 103
Въпрос
Two supported functions of sleep?
Отговор
Memory consolidation and restoration of resources used during waking activity.
Карта 104
Въпрос
Sleep apnea?
Отговор
Repeated breathing interruptions during sleep that fragment sleep and reduce oxygen.
Карта 105
Въпрос
REM rebound?
Отговор
A temporary increase in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation.
Карта 106
Въпрос
Signal detection theory?
Отговор
Detection depends on stimulus strength plus expectations, experience, motivation, and alertness.
Карта 107
Въпрос
Sensory transduction?
Отговор
Sensory receptors convert physical energy into neural signals.
Карта 108
Въпрос
Vestibular sense?
Отговор
The sense of balance and head movement, supported by structures in the inner ear.
Карта 109
Въпрос
Somnambulism?
Отговор
Sleepwalking, which most often occurs during deep NREM sleep.
Карта 110
Въпрос
Why is there a blind spot in each eye?
Отговор
The optic nerve leaves the retina at a point with no rods or cones.
Карта 111
Въпрос
What begins visual transduction?
Отговор
Retinal receptors convert light into neural signals that travel toward the brain.
Карта 112
Въпрос
A sound reaches the left ear slightly earlier and louder than the right. Where will it seem to originate?
Отговор
From the left, because the brain compares arrival-time and intensity differences between the ears.
Карта 113
Въпрос
Why are taste and smell called chemical senses?
Отговор
Their receptors respond to molecules from food or the air.
Карта 114
Въпрос
Accommodation in vision?
Отговор
The lens changes shape to focus near or distant objects on the retina.
Карта 115
Въпрос
Cones?
Отговор
Retinal receptors that support color vision and fine detail in brighter light.
Карта 116
Въпрос
What begins auditory transduction?
Отговор
Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound-driven vibration into neural signals.
Карта 117
Въпрос
How does trichromatic processing explain color vision?
Отговор
Three cone types respond most strongly to different wavelength ranges, and their combined activity produces color experience.
Карта 118
Въпрос
How is smell unusual among the senses?
Отговор
Olfactory signals reach cortical and limbic areas without first passing through the thalamic relay used by other senses.
Карта 119
Въпрос
Kinesthesia?
Отговор
The sense of body-part position and movement, based on signals from muscles, tendons, and joints.
Карта 120
Въпрос
Place coding versus frequency coding in hearing?
Отговор
Place coding links pitch to where the cochlea responds most; frequency coding links pitch to neural firing rate.
Карта 121
Въпрос
Nearsightedness?
Отговор
Nearby objects are clear, but distant images focus in front of the retina and look blurred.
Карта 122
Въпрос
Pheromones?
Отговор
Chemical signals released by one organism that can affect the behavior or physiology of others of the same species.
Карта 123
Въпрос
Touch receptors for warmth and cold fire together strongly. What sensation can result?
Отговор
A hot or burning sensation, showing that temperature experience combines receptor signals.
Карта 124
Въпрос
Volley theory of pitch?
Отговор
Groups of auditory neurons alternate firing so their combined rate can represent pitches too fast for one neuron alone.
Карта 125
Въпрос
Farsightedness?
Отговор
Distant vision is clearer, while nearby images tend to focus behind the retina and look blurred.
Карта 126
Въпрос
Six taste qualities named in the course?
Отговор
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fat taste).
Карта 127
Въпрос
Phantom-limb sensation?
Отговор
Feeling pain, touch, or movement in a limb that is no longer present because the nervous system still represents it.
Карта 128
Въпрос
Sensory interaction?
Отговор
One sense changes how another is experienced, as smell influences flavor.
Карта 129
Въпрос
What causes most color-vision deficiency?
Отговор
One or more cone types are missing or function differently, reducing discrimination among some colors.
Карта 130
Въпрос
Prosopagnosia?
Отговор
Difficulty recognizing familiar faces despite otherwise usable vision.
Карта 131
Въпрос
Rods?
Отговор
Retinal receptors sensitive to dim light and peripheral movement, without color detail.
Карта 132
Въпрос
How does opponent processing explain afterimages?
Отговор
Color is coded in opposing pairs, so tiring one response can make its opponent briefly dominate.
Карта 133
Въпрос
Conductive versus sensorineural hearing loss?
Отговор
Conductive loss blocks sound transmission; sensorineural loss damages hair cells or auditory pathways.
Карта 134
Въпрос
Nontasters, medium tasters, and supertasters?
Отговор
Categories describing lower, typical, and unusually high sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness.
Карта 135
Въпрос
What do the semicircular canals detect?
Отговор
Rotational head movement, helping the vestibular system maintain balance.
Карта 136
Въпрос
Synesthesia?
Отговор
Stimulation of one sense consistently and automatically produces an additional sensory experience.
Карта 137
Въпрос
Dichromatism versus monochromatism?
Отговор
Dichromatism uses two functioning cone systems; monochromatism uses one or none, producing far less color discrimination.
Карта 138
Въпрос
Blindsight?
Отговор
Responding to visual information without consciously seeing it, usually after damage to primary visual cortex.
Карта 139
Въпрос
Sensory adaptation?
Отговор
Reduced sensitivity after constant, unchanging stimulation.
Карта 140
Въпрос
Gate-control view of pain?
Отговор
Spinal and brain processes can amplify or reduce pain signals before conscious experience.
Карта 141
Въпрос
Bottom-up processing?
Отговор
Building a perception from incoming sensory details.
Карта 142
Въпрос
Concept?
Отговор
A mental category used to group similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Карта 143
Въпрос
Fixation in problem solving?
Отговор
Getting stuck on one way of representing or solving a problem.
Карта 144
Въпрос
Algorithm?
Отговор
A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution when followed correctly, though it may be slow.
Карта 145
Въпрос
Top-down processing?
Отговор
Using expectations, context, and prior knowledge to interpret sensory input.
Карта 146
Въпрос
Confirmation bias?
Отговор
Seeking or interpreting evidence in ways that support an existing belief.
Карта 147
Въпрос
Retinal disparity?
Отговор
The difference between each eye's image; greater disparity usually signals a nearer object.
Карта 148
Въпрос
Heuristic?
Отговор
A quick rule of thumb that saves effort but can produce errors.
Карта 149
Въпрос
Selective attention?
Отговор
Focusing conscious awareness on one part of the available sensory input.
Карта 150
Въпрос
Figure–ground organization?
Отговор
Separating the object of attention from its background.
Карта 151
Въпрос
Convergence as a depth cue?
Отговор
The inward turning of the eyes increases as an object gets closer.
Карта 152
Въпрос
Representativeness heuristic?
Отговор
Judging category membership by resemblance to a prototype while neglecting other information.
Карта 153
Въпрос
Missing a visible event while attention is elsewhere?
Отговор
Inattentional blindness.
Карта 154
Въпрос
Gestalt proximity principle?
Отговор
Elements close together tend to be perceived as a group.
Карта 155
Въпрос
Two familiar objects cast different-sized retinal images. Which looks farther away?
Отговор
The one with the smaller retinal image, using the monocular cue of relative size.
Карта 156
Въпрос
Cocktail-party effect?
Отговор
The ability to focus on one conversation while still noticing personally important information in the background.
Карта 157
Въпрос
Failing to notice an obvious change in a scene?
Отговор
Change blindness.
Карта 158
Въпрос
Gestalt similarity principle?
Отговор
Elements that look alike tend to be grouped together.
Карта 159
Въпрос
Parallel lines seem to meet in the distance. Which depth cue?
Отговор
Linear perspective.
Карта 160
Въпрос
Perceptual constancy?
Отговор
Seeing an object's size, shape, or color as stable despite changing sensory images.
Карта 161
Въпрос
Perceptual set?
Отговор
A readiness to perceive something in a particular way because of expectations or context.
Карта 162
Въпрос
Gestalt closure principle?
Отговор
The mind fills gaps to perceive a complete object.
Карта 163
Въпрос
One object blocks part of another. Which seems closer?
Отговор
The blocking object, using interposition.
Карта 164
Въпрос
Apparent motion?
Отговор
The perception of movement created by rapidly presented stationary images or lights.
Карта 165
Въпрос
Availability heuristic?
Отговор
Judging likelihood by how easily examples come to mind.
Карта 166
Въпрос
Divergent thinking?
Отговор
Generating many varied, original possibilities.
Карта 167
Въпрос
A hazy object appears farther away than a sharp object. Which depth cue?
Отговор
Relative clarity.
Карта 168
Въпрос
Prototype?
Отговор
A mental image of the most typical example of a category.
Карта 169
Въпрос
Ignoring how common an event is while focusing on a vivid description?
Отговор
Base-rate neglect, often tied to the representativeness heuristic.
Карта 170
Въпрос
Convergent thinking?
Отговор
Narrowing possibilities to the single best answer.
Карта 171
Въпрос
A textured surface looks denser and finer with distance. Which depth cue?
Отговор
Texture gradient.
Карта 172
Въпрос
Belief perseverance?
Отговор
Holding a belief even after the evidence that created it has been discredited.
Карта 173
Въпрос
Explicit memory?
Отговор
Conscious memory for facts and experiences.
Карта 174
Въпрос
Three stores in the multi-store model?
Отговор
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Карта 175
Въпрос
Seeing an object only in its usual role?
Отговор
Functional fixedness.
Карта 176
Въпрос
Mental set?
Отговор
Using a familiar solution strategy even when a different approach would work better.
Карта 177
Въпрос
Episodic memory?
Отговор
Explicit memory for personally experienced events.
Карта 178
Въпрос
Working memory?
Отговор
A limited-capacity system that briefly holds and actively manipulates information.
Карта 179
Въпрос
Insight?
Отговор
A sudden realization of a problem's solution.
Карта 180
Въпрос
Framing effect?
Отговор
Choices change when the same information is worded or presented differently.
Карта 181
Въпрос
Implicit memory?
Отговор
Learning that affects behavior without deliberate conscious recall.
Карта 182
Въпрос
Overconfidence bias?
Отговор
Being more certain about one's judgments than accuracy warrants.
Карта 183
Въпрос
Anchoring bias?
Отговор
Relying too heavily on the first number or idea encountered.
Карта 184
Въпрос
Schema in thinking?
Отговор
A mental framework that organizes knowledge and guides interpretation.
Карта 185
Въпрос
Procedural memory?
Отговор
Implicit memory for skills and habits.
Карта 186
Въпрос
Gambler's fallacy?
Отговор
The mistaken belief that a random outcome becomes due after a streak, even when trials are independent.
Карта 187
Въпрос
Sunk-cost fallacy?
Отговор
Continuing because of past investment even when future costs outweigh future benefits.
Карта 188
Въпрос
Executive functions?
Отговор
Mental processes that support planning, inhibition, flexible switching, and goal-directed control.
Карта 189
Въпрос
How can priming affect judgment?
Отговор
Recent exposure can make related ideas more accessible and subtly shape a later response.
Карта 190
Въпрос
Central executive in working memory?
Отговор
The attention-control component that coordinates verbal and visual-spatial processing.
Карта 191
Въпрос
Serial-position effect?
Отговор
People tend to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.
Карта 192
Въпрос
Semantic memory?
Отговор
Explicit memory for facts, meanings, and general knowledge.
Карта 193
Въпрос
Levels-of-processing principle?
Отговор
Deeper semantic processing usually produces stronger memory than shallow structural or sound-based processing.
Карта 194
Въпрос
Automatic processing?
Отговор
Encoding information with little conscious effort, such as space, time, or well-practiced meanings.
Карта 195
Въпрос
Maintenance rehearsal?
Отговор
Repeating information to keep it active, usually without adding much meaning.
Карта 196
Въпрос
Prospective memory?
Отговор
Remembering to carry out an intended action in the future.
Карта 197
Въпрос
Primacy effect?
Отговор
Better memory for early list items, often because they receive more rehearsal.
Карта 198
Въпрос
Long-term memory?
Отговор
A relatively durable, large-capacity store of knowledge, experiences, and skills.
Карта 199
Въпрос
Highly superior autobiographical memory?
Отговор
An unusual ability to recall extensive personal events and dates with exceptional accuracy.
Карта 200
Въпрос
Effortful processing?
Отговор
Encoding that requires attention and deliberate work.
Карта 201
Въпрос
Elaborative rehearsal?
Отговор
Linking new information to meaning, examples, or existing knowledge.
Карта 202
Въпрос
Memory consolidation?
Отговор
The process that stabilizes a memory after learning.
Карта 203
Въпрос
Recency effect?
Отговор
Better immediate memory for the last list items because they remain active.
Карта 204
Въпрос
Spacing effect?
Отговор
Learning lasts longer when study is distributed over time rather than massed into one session.
Карта 205
Въпрос
Testing effect?
Отговор
Actively retrieving information improves later memory more than rereading alone.
Карта 206
Въпрос
Chunking?
Отговор
Organizing separate pieces of information into meaningful units.
Карта 207
Въпрос
Mnemonic?
Отговор
A structured memory aid that links material to an image, phrase, location, or pattern.
Карта 208
Въпрос
Why organize material into a hierarchy?
Отговор
Grouping broad ideas above narrower details makes relationships easier to encode and retrieve.
Карта 209
Въпрос
How can a schema help encoding?
Отговор
It supplies an existing framework that organizes and connects new information.
Карта 210
Въпрос
Students reread or practice retrieval, then take the same delayed test. What are the independent and dependent variables?
Отговор
The study method is independent; delayed-test performance is dependent.
Карта 211
Въпрос
Iconic memory?
Отговор
A very brief visual sensory memory.
Карта 212
Въпрос
Recall?
Отговор
Retrieving information with few external cues, as in an essay question.
Карта 213
Въпрос
Retrieval cue?
Отговор
A stimulus linked to a memory that helps bring it to awareness.
Карта 214
Въпрос
Encoding-specificity principle?
Отговор
Retrieval improves when cues at recall match cues present during encoding.
Карта 215
Въпрос
Context-dependent memory?
Отговор
Recall can improve in the same external environment where learning occurred.
Карта 216
Въпрос
Does the hippocampus permanently store every explicit memory?
Отговор
No. It helps form and consolidate new explicit memories, which later depend on distributed cortical networks.
Карта 217
Въпрос
Echoic memory?
Отговор
A brief auditory sensory memory that lasts longer than iconic memory.
Карта 218
Въпрос
Anterograde amnesia?
Отговор
Difficulty forming new long-term explicit memories after the onset of damage or illness.
Карта 219
Въпрос
Phonological loop?
Отговор
The working-memory component that briefly holds and rehearses verbal or sound information.
Карта 220
Въпрос
Cerebellum's memory role?
Отговор
It supports procedural learning and some classically conditioned responses.
Карта 221
Въпрос
Why is short-term memory described as limited?
Отговор
It can hold only a small amount of information without rehearsal or chunking.
Карта 222
Въпрос
Retrograde amnesia?
Отговор
Loss of memories formed before the onset of damage or illness.
Карта 223
Въпрос
Why are events tied to your own life often easier to remember?
Отговор
The self-reference effect makes information connected to oneself more memorable.
Карта 224
Въпрос
How can the amygdala affect memory?
Отговор
Emotional arousal can strengthen consolidation of emotionally significant events.
Карта 225
Въпрос
Visuospatial sketchpad?
Отговор
The working-memory component that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information.
Карта 226
Въпрос
Long-term potentiation?
Отговор
A lasting increase in synaptic efficiency after repeated activation, associated with learning and memory.
Карта 227
Въпрос
Infantile amnesia?
Отговор
The typical inability to recall autobiographical events from the first few years of life.
Карта 228
Въпрос
Alzheimer's disease?
Отговор
A progressive brain disorder that gradually impairs memory, reasoning, and daily functioning.
Карта 229
Въпрос
Scores are
2, 4, 4, 7, 9. What are the mode and range?Отговор
The mode is 4, and the range is 7 because
9 - 2 = 7.Карта 230
Въпрос
Recognition?
Отговор
Identifying previously learned information, as in selecting a familiar answer.
Карта 231
Въпрос
Why is memory called reconstructive?
Отговор
Recall rebuilds an event from stored details, schemas, expectations, and later information.
Карта 232
Въпрос
Storage decay?
Отговор
A memory trace weakens over time, especially when it isn't used.
Карта 233
Въпрос
State-dependent memory?
Отговор
Recall can improve when a person's internal state matches the state during learning.
Карта 234
Въпрос
Relearning?
Отговор
Measuring memory by how much faster material is learned again.
Карта 235
Въпрос
Misinformation effect?
Отговор
Misleading information after an event changes memory of the event.
Карта 236
Въпрос
A student recalls more in the original classroom. What claim is supported?
Отговор
Matching environmental cues can aid retrieval; the setting didn't necessarily improve storage.
Карта 237
Въпрос
Mood-congruent memory?
Отговор
A current mood makes similarly toned memories easier to retrieve.
Карта 238
Въпрос
Priming?
Отговор
Exposure to one stimulus unconsciously influences the response to a later stimulus.
Карта 239
Въпрос
Tip-of-the-tongue state?
Отговор
A temporary retrieval failure accompanied by a feeling that the answer is known.
Карта 240
Въпрос
Why does retrieval practice strengthen memory?
Отговор
Each successful retrieval reinforces access routes and reveals what still needs study.
Карта 241
Въпрос
Class A scores cluster near 80; Class B has the same mean but scores spread from 50 to 100. Which class has the larger standard deviation?
Отговор
Class B, because its scores vary farther from the mean.
Карта 242
Въпрос
Metacognition?
Отговор
Monitoring and regulating one's own thinking and learning.
Карта 243
Въпрос
Source amnesia?
Отговор
Remembering information but misremembering where it came from.
Карта 244
Въпрос
Test standardization?
Отговор
Administering a test consistently and establishing norms from a representative sample.
Карта 245
Въпрос
Reliability?
Отговор
The consistency of a measurement across time, items, or scorers.
Карта 246
Въпрос
Stereotype threat?
Отговор
Concern about confirming a negative group stereotype can interfere with performance.
Карта 247
Въпрос
General intelligence, or g?
Отговор
A broad mental ability proposed to contribute to performance across many cognitive tasks.
Карта 248
Въпрос
Encoding failure?
Отговор
Information never entered memory well enough to be stored, often because attention was weak.
Карта 249
Въпрос
Validity?
Отговор
The extent to which evidence supports the interpretation and use of a test score.
Карта 250
Въпрос
Proactive interference?
Отговор
Older learning disrupts recall of newer information.
Карта 251
Въпрос
Imagination inflation?
Отговор
Repeatedly imagining an event increases confidence that it really happened.
Карта 252
Въпрос
A forgetting curve drops sharply soon after learning, then flattens. What does this pattern show?
Отговор
Forgetting is fastest soon after learning and slows over time.
Карта 253
Въпрос
Retrieval failure?
Отговор
Stored information is temporarily inaccessible because effective cues are missing.
Карта 254
Въпрос
Retroactive interference?
Отговор
Newer learning disrupts recall of older information.
Карта 255
Въпрос
A confident witness recalls a detail introduced after the event. Best conclusion?
Отговор
Confidence doesn't guarantee accuracy; post-event misinformation may have altered the memory.
Карта 256
Въпрос
Repression in psychodynamic theory?
Отговор
The proposed unconscious blocking of distressing memories or impulses from awareness.
Карта 257
Въпрос
Flashbulb memory?
Отговор
A vivid memory for learning about an emotional event; confidence can remain high even when details change.
Карта 258
Въпрос
A study defines memory accuracy as the number of 20 words recalled after 24 hours. What design element is this?
Отговор
An operational definition of memory accuracy.
Карта 259
Въпрос
A score is at the 84th percentile. What does that mean?
Отговор
It is equal to or higher than about 84% of scores in the reference group.
Карта 260
Въпрос
Stereotype lift?
Отговор
A performance boost that can occur when a negative stereotype targets another group, making one's own group seem comparatively advantaged.
Карта 261
Въпрос
Achievement test?
Отговор
An assessment of knowledge or skills already learned.
Карта 262
Въпрос
Construct validity?
Отговор
How well evidence shows that a test measures the psychological construct it claims to measure.
Карта 263
Въпрос
Test–retest reliability?
Отговор
Consistency of scores when the same assessment is administered to the same people at different times.
Карта 264
Въпрос
Why can't historical group differences on intelligence tests justify discriminatory policy?
Отговор
Scores reflect testing conditions and social opportunity as well as measured ability; group averages don't define individuals or prove biological causation.
Карта 265
Въпрос
Multiple-abilities view of intelligence?
Отговор
Intelligence includes several partly distinct abilities rather than one general capacity alone.
Карта 266
Въпрос
Aptitude test?
Отговор
An assessment intended to predict capacity to learn or perform in the future.
Карта 267
Въпрос
Traditional IQ formula?
Отговор
Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. Modern tests use age-based norms instead.
Карта 268
Въпрос
Predictive validity?
Отговор
How well a test score forecasts a relevant later outcome.
Карта 269
Въпрос
What does a normal score distribution look like?
Отговор
Most scores cluster near the mean, with fewer scores toward either extreme.
Карта 270
Въпрос
Split-half reliability?
Отговор
Consistency between two comparable halves of the same assessment.
Карта 271
Въпрос
Two groups have different average test scores. What conclusion is not justified?
Отговор
That every member differs or that biology caused the gap; within-group variation and social conditions matter.
Карта 272
Въпрос
Flynn effect?
Отговор
Average intelligence-test scores have risen across generations in many populations, pointing to environmental influence.
Карта 273
Въпрос
A student treats mistakes as information and changes study strategies. Which mindset does this show?
Отговор
A growth mindset; a fixed mindset treats ability as largely unchangeable.
Карта 274
Въпрос
Continuous versus stage development?
Отговор
Continuous views emphasize gradual change; stage views describe distinct qualitative shifts.
Карта 275
Въпрос
How can prenatal environment affect later development?
Отговор
Nutrition, stress, illness, and substance exposure can influence physical and neural development before birth.
Карта 276
Въпрос
Teratogen?
Отговор
An environmental agent that can disrupt prenatal development, with effects depending on dose, timing, and susceptibility.
Карта 277
Въпрос
Maturation?
Отговор
Biologically guided growth processes that unfold in a generally predictable sequence.
Карта 278
Въпрос
Stability–change question in development?
Отговор
It asks which traits persist across life and which change with age or experience.
Карта 279
Въпрос
A researcher predicts that students who sleep at least eight hours will recall more words than students who sleep less. Why is this hypothesis falsifiable?
Отговор
The groups and recall outcome can be measured, so evidence could show that the predicted difference does not occur.
Карта 280
Въпрос
Which method best tests whether a new study routine causes higher quiz scores?
Отговор
An experiment that manipulates the routine and randomly assigns participants, because it can support a causal conclusion.
Карта 281
Въпрос
Why do motor milestones follow a common order but different timing?
Отговор
Maturation shapes the sequence, while biology and experience influence pace.
Карта 282
Въпрос
Fine versus gross motor skills?
Отговор
Fine skills use small, precise movements; gross skills use larger muscle groups and whole-body movement.
Карта 283
Въпрос
Why are infant reflexes useful to researchers?
Отговор
Their presence and change can indicate early nervous-system development.
Карта 284
Въпрос
What did the visual-cliff procedure test?
Отговор
It tested whether infants would cross an apparent drop, providing evidence about depth perception and the influence of locomotor experience.
Карта 285
Въпрос
Puberty?
Отговор
The period of sexual maturation driven by hormonal and physical changes.
Карта 286
Въпрос
Sensitive period?
Отговор
A developmental window when experience has an especially strong effect, though learning may remain possible later.
Карта 287
Въпрос
What physical pattern commonly marks the start of adolescence?
Отговор
A puberty-related growth spurt, with rapid increases in height and weight.
Карта 288
Въпрос
Primary versus secondary sex characteristics?
Отговор
Primary characteristics are reproductive organs and functions; secondary characteristics are puberty-related traits not directly required for reproduction.
Карта 289
Въпрос
Which method best measures the relationship between adolescents' sleep duration and mood without assigning sleep schedules?
Отговор
A correlational study, because both variables are measured rather than manipulated.
Карта 290
Въпрос
Older adults score lower than younger adults in one same-time comparison. Which design and alternative explanation limit an aging claim?
Отговор
The study is cross-sectional, and a cohort effect could explain the difference because the age groups grew up under different conditions.
Карта 291
Въпрос
Researchers test the same people yearly from ages 10 to 20. Which design is this, and what participant-loss risk should they track?
Отговор
A longitudinal design; attrition can bias the results if those who leave differ from those who remain.
Карта 292
Въпрос
Menarche?
Отговор
The first menstrual period.
Карта 293
Въпрос
Which method allows an intensive investigation of one person with an exceptionally rare developmental condition?
Отговор
A case study, which provides depth but may not generalize to a wider population.
Карта 294
Въпрос
About what percentage of scores in a normal distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean?
Отговор
About 68%.
Карта 295
Въпрос
A prenatal exposure correlates with later difficulty. What limits a causal claim?
Отговор
Other parental, health, and environmental variables may account for the association.
Карта 296
Въпрос
Spermarche?
Отговор
The first ejaculation.
Карта 297
Въпрос
Which method combines results from many studies to estimate an overall effect?
Отговор
A meta-analysis, which statistically synthesizes findings across studies.
Карта 298
Въпрос
Imprinting?
Отговор
A rapid form of early learning in which some young animals form an attachment during a sensitive period.
Карта 299
Въпрос
Why can adolescent risk-taking increase?
Отговор
Reward systems develop earlier than the prefrontal control systems used for planning and inhibition.
Карта 300
Въпрос
Menopause?
Отговор
The natural end of menstrual cycles, diagnosed after 12 consecutive months without menstruation.
Карта 301
Въпрос
Which method records children's playground behavior without directing or changing it?
Отговор
Naturalistic observation.
Карта 302
Въпрос
How do mobility, flexibility, and reaction time typically change across later adulthood?
Отговор
They tend to decline gradually, although health, activity, and individual differences affect the pace.
Карта 303
Въпрос
Gender identity?
Отговор
A person's internal sense of their gender.
Карта 304
Въпрос
Gender role?
Отговор
A culture's expectations for behavior associated with gender.
Карта 305
Въпрос
Sex versus gender?
Отговор
Sex refers to biological traits; gender refers to identities, roles, and social meanings.
Карта 306
Въпрос
Common sensory change in later adulthood?
Отговор
Vision and hearing sensitivity often decline, though the degree varies widely.
Карта 307
Въпрос
Sexual orientation?
Отговор
A pattern of romantic or sexual attraction; it is distinct from gender identity.
Карта 308
Въпрос
Gender schema?
Отговор
A mental framework that organizes information and expectations about gender.
Карта 309
Въпрос
Best broad view of gender development?
Отговор
Biological, cognitive, social, and cultural influences interact.
Карта 310
Въпрос
Does normal aging cause uniform cognitive decline?
Отговор
No. Processing speed may slow, while knowledge and expertise can remain stable or grow.
Карта 311
Въпрос
Why shouldn't variation in gender identity or sexual orientation be treated as a disorder?
Отговор
Variation alone isn't evidence of dysfunction; distress often reflects stigma or discrimination rather than identity.
Карта 312
Въпрос
Schema in cognitive development?
Отговор
A mental framework used to organize and interpret experience.
Карта 313
Въпрос
Sensorimotor stage?
Отговор
Infants learn through sensory experience and action and develop object permanence.
Карта 314
Въпрос
Preoperational stage?
Отговор
Young children use symbols and language but often lack conservation and show egocentric thinking.
Карта 315
Въпрос
Assimilation?
Отговор
Fitting new information into an existing schema.
Карта 316
Въпрос
A learner cannot solve a puzzle alone but succeeds with a teacher's hints. Where is the task?
Отговор
In the learner's zone of proximal development.
Карта 317
Въпрос
Animism in preoperational thought?
Отговор
Attributing life, feelings, or intentions to inanimate objects.
Карта 318
Въпрос
Concrete operational stage?
Отговор
Children reason logically about concrete events and understand conservation.
Карта 319
Въпрос
Accommodation?
Отговор
Changing a schema when new information doesn't fit it.
Карта 320
Въпрос
Reversibility in cognitive development?
Отговор
Understanding that an operation can be mentally undone, a skill associated with concrete operational thought.
Карта 321
Въпрос
How can social learning shape gender expression?
Отговор
People observe models and receive reinforcement or punishment for gender-related behavior.
Карта 322
Въпрос
A child calls a zebra a horse because it fits an existing animal schema. Which process?
Отговор
Assimilation.
Карта 323
Въпрос
Language?
Отговор
A shared, rule-governed system of symbols used to communicate and generate ideas.
Карта 324
Въпрос
Cooing stage?
Отговор
Early vowel-like sounds that typically appear before babbling.
Карта 325
Въпрос
Babbling stage?
Отговор
Infants produce repeated speech-like sounds before meaningful words.
Карта 326
Въпрос
One-word stage?
Отговор
A child uses single words to express whole ideas.
Карта 327
Въпрос
Grammar?
Отговор
A language's system of rules for combining and interpreting symbols.
Карта 328
Въпрос
A child assumes everyone can see the picture visible only from the child's side of a model. Which limitation does this show?
Отговор
Egocentrism: difficulty taking another person's visual perspective.
Карта 329
Въпрос
Crystallized intelligence across adulthood?
Отговор
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills often remain stable or increase.
Карта 330
Въпрос
A child revises an animal schema after learning that zebras aren't horses. Which process?
Отговор
Accommodation.
Карта 331
Въпрос
A teacher first models each step, then removes hints as the learner improves. What support strategy is this?
Отговор
Scaffolding.
Карта 332
Въпрос
A child predicts that someone will search where that person last saw a toy, not where the toy really is. Which ability does this show?
Отговор
Theory of mind: recognizing that another person can hold a different belief.
Карта 333
Въпрос
Fluid intelligence across adulthood?
Отговор
Speedy reasoning with novel problems often peaks earlier and may decline gradually.
Карта 334
Въпрос
An infant searches for a toy after it is covered by a cloth. Which ability does this show?
Отговор
Object permanence: understanding that the toy still exists when it cannot be seen.
Карта 335
Въпрос
Water is poured from a short glass into a taller, narrower glass, and a child says there is more water. Which concept is missing?
Отговор
Conservation: understanding that quantity remains the same despite a change in appearance.
Карта 336
Въпрос
Formal operational stage?
Отговор
Adolescents and adults can reason abstractly and test hypothetical possibilities.
Карта 337
Въпрос
Dementia?
Отговор
A broad syndrome involving cognitive decline that interferes with daily life; it is not an inevitable part of normal aging.
Карта 338
Въпрос
Phoneme?
Отговор
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language.
Карта 339
Въпрос
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems view?
Отговор
Development reflects interactions between a person and nested social environments over time.
Карта 340
Въпрос
Temperament?
Отговор
Early, biologically influenced patterns of emotional reactivity and self-regulation.
Карта 341
Въпрос
Attachment?
Отговор
An enduring emotional bond that supports proximity and security.
Карта 342
Въпрос
Erikson's infancy conflict?
Отговор
Trust versus mistrust: dependable care supports a basic sense of security.
Карта 343
Въпрос
Microsystem?
Отговор
Immediate settings and relationships, such as family, school, peers, and work.
Карта 344
Въпрос
Erikson's toddler conflict?
Отговор
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: supported self-control builds independence.
Карта 345
Въпрос
Erikson's early-childhood conflict?
Отговор
Initiative versus guilt: directing activities and plans supports purpose.
Карта 346
Въпрос
Erikson's school-age conflict?
Отговор
Industry versus inferiority: mastering valued skills supports competence.
Карта 347
Въпрос
Mesosystem?
Отговор
Connections among a person's microsystems, such as communication between family and school.
Карта 348
Въпрос
Erikson's adolescent conflict?
Отговор
Identity versus role confusion: exploring and integrating roles supports identity.
Карта 349
Въпрос
Erikson's young-adult conflict?
Отговор
Intimacy versus isolation: forming close, committed relationships.
Карта 350
Въпрос
Erikson's middle-adult conflict?
Отговор
Generativity versus stagnation: contributing to others and the next generation.
Карта 351
Въпрос
Exosystem?
Отговор
Settings that affect a person indirectly, such as a caregiver's workplace.
Карта 352
Въпрос
Morpheme?
Отговор
The smallest unit that carries meaning.
Карта 353
Въпрос
Telegraphic speech?
Отговор
Early short phrases that contain essential words while omitting smaller grammatical words.
705 карти
AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
Учете с това тесте безплатноNibomo се отваря, за да започнете да учите.
Карта 354
Въпрос
How do nonverbal gestures support language development?
Отговор
Pointing, gaze, expression, and movement communicate meaning before and alongside spoken words.
Карта 355
Въпрос
Macrosystem?
Отговор
The wider culture, values, laws, customs, and economic conditions surrounding development.
Карта 356
Въпрос
Semantics?
Отговор
The meanings of words and sentences.
Карта 357
Въпрос
A child says “goed” after learning the usual past-tense pattern. What is this?
Отговор
Overgeneralization: applying a language rule where an exception is required.
Карта 358
Въпрос
What does a sensitive period for language imply?
Отговор
Early exposure supports fluent development, though later learning remains possible.
Карта 359
Въпрос
Does language completely determine thought?
Отговор
No. Language can shape attention and categorization, but thought also occurs without words.
Карта 360
Въпрос
Syntax?
Отговор
Rules for arranging words into phrases and sentences.
Карта 361
Въпрос
A child explores while a caregiver is present, seeks contact at reunion, and is readily comforted. Which attachment pattern fits?
Отговор
Secure attachment.
Карта 362
Въпрос
How does the behavioral perspective explain behavior?
Отговор
It focuses on observable behavior learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and environmental cues.
Карта 363
Въпрос
Authoritative parenting?
Отговор
High warmth with clear, consistent expectations and age-appropriate autonomy.
Карта 364
Въпрос
Identity achievement?
Отговор
A person makes commitments after meaningful exploration.
Карта 365
Въпрос
Avoidant attachment pattern?
Отговор
The child shows little contact-seeking and tends to avoid or ignore the caregiver at reunion.
Карта 366
Въпрос
Classical conditioning?
Отговор
Learning that one stimulus predicts another, so a previously neutral stimulus elicits a response.
Карта 367
Въпрос
Unconditioned stimulus?
Отговор
A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning.
Карта 368
Въпрос
Unconditioned response?
Отговор
The unlearned response naturally produced by an unconditioned stimulus.
Карта 369
Въпрос
Conditioned stimulus?
Отговор
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a learned response after association.
Карта 370
Въпрос
Conditioned response?
Отговор
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
Карта 371
Въпрос
Acquisition in classical conditioning?
Отговор
The initial learning period when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Карта 372
Въпрос
During acquisition, when should the conditioned stimulus usually appear relative to the unconditioned stimulus?
Отговор
The conditioned stimulus should appear shortly before the unconditioned stimulus so it predicts what comes next.
Карта 373
Въпрос
Authoritarian parenting?
Отговор
Low warmth with strict control and little discussion.
Карта 374
Въпрос
Identity diffusion?
Отговор
A person has neither actively explored alternatives nor made firm commitments.
Карта 375
Въпрос
Extinction in classical conditioning?
Отговор
The conditioned response weakens when the conditioned stimulus repeatedly appears without the unconditioned stimulus.
Карта 376
Въпрос
Anxious-resistant attachment pattern?
Отговор
The child seeks contact but remains distressed or resists comfort at reunion.
Карта 377
Въпрос
Permissive parenting?
Отговор
High warmth with few demands or limits.
Карта 378
Въпрос
Parallel play?
Отговор
Young children play beside one another with similar materials but little direct coordination.
Карта 379
Въпрос
Imaginary audience?
Отговор
An adolescent's belief that other people are constantly noticing and evaluating them.
Карта 380
Въпрос
Identity foreclosure?
Отговор
A person commits without exploring alternatives, often adopting others' expectations.
Карта 381
Въпрос
Disorganized attachment pattern?
Отговор
The child shows contradictory, confused, or fearful behavior without a consistent reunion strategy.
Карта 382
Въпрос
Neglectful parenting?
Отговор
Low warmth and low control or involvement.
Карта 383
Въпрос
Chronosystem?
Отговор
Life transitions and historical changes that alter development over time.
Карта 384
Въпрос
Why is pretend play developmentally useful?
Отговор
It lets children practice symbols, roles, perspective-taking, and social rules.
Карта 385
Въпрос
Personal fable?
Отговор
An adolescent's sense that their experiences are unique and that ordinary risks may not apply to them.
Карта 386
Въпрос
Identity moratorium?
Отговор
A person is actively exploring alternatives without yet making a stable commitment.
Карта 387
Въпрос
Best claim about adverse childhood experiences?
Отговор
They can raise later health and relationship risks, but they don't determine an individual's outcome.
Карта 388
Въпрос
Separation anxiety in infancy?
Отговор
Distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; it is common during part of typical development.
Карта 389
Въпрос
What did infant-monkey research suggest about attachment?
Отговор
Comforting physical contact can be a stronger attachment cue than food alone.
Карта 390
Въпрос
Which research method does the Strange Situation use to assess attachment behavior?
Отговор
Structured observation: researchers record behavior during standardized separations and reunions.
Карта 391
Въпрос
Emerging adulthood?
Отговор
A transitional period, often from the late teens through the twenties, marked by identity exploration and changing roles.
Карта 392
Въпрос
Social clock?
Отговор
Culturally shaped expectations about when major life events should occur.
Карта 393
Въпрос
Erikson's later-adult conflict?
Отговор
Integrity versus despair: evaluating life with acceptance rather than regret.
Карта 394
Въпрос
Possible selves?
Отговор
Mental images of who a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming.
Карта 395
Въпрос
Stimulus generalization?
Отговор
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus also trigger the conditioned response.
Карта 396
Въпрос
Operant conditioning?
Отговор
Learning in which consequences change the future frequency of voluntary behavior.
Карта 397
Въпрос
Law of effect?
Отговор
Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences become less likely.
Карта 398
Въпрос
Spontaneous recovery?
Отговор
An extinguished conditioned response briefly returns after a rest period.
Карта 399
Въпрос
Stimulus discrimination?
Отговор
Learning to respond differently to the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
Карта 400
Въпрос
Reinforcement?
Отговор
Any consequence that increases a behavior.
Карта 401
Въпрос
Higher-order conditioning?
Отговор
An established conditioned stimulus helps a new neutral stimulus become conditioned without direct pairing with the original unconditioned stimulus.
Карта 402
Въпрос
Counterconditioning?
Отговор
Replacing an unwanted conditioned response by pairing the trigger with a new, incompatible response.
Карта 403
Въпрос
Habituation?
Отговор
A reduced response after repeated exposure to a harmless, unchanged stimulus.
Карта 404
Въпрос
Punishment?
Отговор
Any consequence that decreases a behavior.
Карта 405
Въпрос
Partial reinforcement?
Отговор
Reinforcing only some responses; learning is slower, but behavior resists extinction.
Карта 406
Въпрос
Why can taste aversion form after one delayed pairing?
Отговор
Biological preparedness makes certain food–illness associations especially easy to learn.
Карта 407
Въпрос
Most conditioning trials take 2–6 attempts, but one participant needs 24. What shape will the trial-count distribution likely have?
Отговор
It will be right-skewed because the unusually high value stretches the upper tail.
Карта 408
Въпрос
Participants may encounter distressing images in a learning study. What must an institutional review board evaluate before approval?
Отговор
Whether the scientific value justifies the risks and whether safeguards reduce those risks to an acceptable level.
Карта 409
Въпрос
Fixed-ratio schedule?
Отговор
Reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
Карта 410
Въпрос
Observational learning?
Отговор
Learning by watching others and the consequences they receive.
Карта 411
Въпрос
A teacher adds praise after completed homework, and homework completion increases. Which consequence is this?
Отговор
Positive reinforcement.
Карта 412
Въпрос
Primary reinforcer?
Отговор
A naturally rewarding stimulus tied to biological needs, such as food when hungry.
Карта 413
Въпрос
Variable-ratio schedule?
Отговор
Reinforcement follows an unpredictable number of responses, producing persistent responding.
Карта 414
Въпрос
Modeling?
Отговор
Performing a behavior after observing it in another person.
Карта 415
Въпрос
Which response pattern is typical of a fixed-ratio schedule?
Отговор
A high response rate followed by a brief pause after each reward.
Карта 416
Въпрос
Fastening a seat belt stops an unpleasant alarm, making future fastening more likely. Which consequence is this?
Отговор
Negative reinforcement.
Карта 417
Въпрос
Conditioned reinforcer?
Отговор
A learned reward that gains value through association, such as money or praise.
Карта 418
Въпрос
A child sees a classmate praised for sharing and then shares more often. Which process may explain the change?
Отговор
Vicarious reinforcement.
Карта 419
Въпрос
Fixed-interval schedule?
Отговор
The first response after a set amount of time is reinforced.
Карта 420
Въпрос
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-ratio schedule?
Отговор
A high, steady response rate with little or no pause after rewards.
Карта 421
Въпрос
A driver receives a fine, and speeding decreases. Which consequence is this?
Отговор
Positive punishment.
Карта 422
Въпрос
Shaping?
Отговор
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
Карта 423
Въпрос
Extinction in operant conditioning?
Отговор
A behavior weakens when it no longer produces reinforcement.
Карта 424
Въпрос
Variable-interval schedule?
Отговор
The first response after an unpredictable amount of time is reinforced.
Карта 425
Въпрос
A teenager loses gaming access, and missed curfews decrease. Which consequence is this?
Отговор
Negative punishment.
Карта 426
Въпрос
Learned helplessness?
Отговор
After repeated uncontrollable negative events, a person or animal stops trying to escape even when escape becomes possible.
Карта 427
Въпрос
Continuous reinforcement?
Отговор
Reinforcing every occurrence of a behavior; learning is fast, but extinction is also fast.
Карта 428
Въпрос
A response record rises slowly after each reward, then accelerates as the next fixed time approaches. Which schedule produced this scalloped pattern?
Отговор
A fixed-interval schedule.
Карта 429
Въпрос
Discriminative stimulus?
Отговор
A cue that signals when a particular response is likely to be reinforced.
Карта 430
Въпрос
Operant generalization versus discrimination?
Отговор
Generalization spreads a learned response to similar cues; discrimination limits it to cues that signal reinforcement.
Карта 431
Въпрос
Instinctive drift?
Отговор
A learned behavior shifts toward an animal's biologically predisposed behavior.
Карта 432
Въпрос
Which response pattern is typical of a variable-interval schedule?
Отговор
A steady, moderate response rate because reinforcement can become available at unpredictable times.
Карта 433
Въпрос
How can superstitious behavior develop through operant conditioning?
Отговор
A coincidental reward can reinforce a behavior that didn't actually cause the outcome.
Карта 434
Въпрос
How does similarity to a model affect observational learning?
Отговор
Observers are often more likely to attend to and imitate models they see as similar or relevant.
Карта 435
Въпрос
Vicarious conditioning?
Отговор
Learning an emotional response by observing another person's reaction to a stimulus.
Карта 436
Въпрос
A rat makes 12, 13, 11, and 12 responses in four equal time blocks, with rewards delivered at unpredictable times. Which schedule best fits this steady pattern?
Отговор
A variable-interval schedule.
Карта 437
Въпрос
Children imitate a rewarded model more than a punished model. Supported claim?
Отговор
Observed consequences can influence whether learned behavior is performed.
Карта 438
Въпрос
Why randomly assign children to watch either an aggressive or a calm model?
Отговор
Random assignment helps balance preexisting differences between groups, strengthening a causal inference about the model's effect.
Карта 439
Въпрос
Latent learning?
Отговор
Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and appears later when there is an incentive.
Карта 440
Въпрос
Cognitive map?
Отговор
A mental representation of the layout of an environment.
Карта 441
Въпрос
Insight learning?
Отговор
A sudden cognitive solution without visible trial-and-error steps.
Карта 442
Въпрос
Biological preparedness?
Отговор
An evolved readiness to learn some associations more easily than others.
Карта 443
Въпрос
What can mirror-neuron activity show?
Отговор
Some neural systems respond during both action and observation, though this alone doesn't explain all imitation or empathy.
Карта 444
Въпрос
Attribution?
Отговор
An explanation for the cause of a person's behavior or an event.
Карта 445
Въпрос
Attitude?
Отговор
An evaluation of a person, object, issue, or behavior, involving beliefs, feelings, and action tendencies.
Карта 446
Въпрос
Upward social comparison?
Отговор
Comparing oneself with someone doing better, which can inspire improvement or reduce satisfaction.
Карта 447
Въпрос
Optimistic explanatory style?
Отговор
Explaining setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable rather than permanent and global.
Карта 448
Въпрос
Situational attribution?
Отговор
Explaining behavior through external circumstances or social context.
Карта 449
Въпрос
A person who values health keeps vaping and feels pressure to change either the behavior or the belief. What is this discomfort?
Отговор
Cognitive dissonance.
Карта 450
Въпрос
Downward social comparison?
Отговор
Comparing oneself with someone doing worse, which can protect self-evaluation.
Карта 451
Въпрос
Internal locus of control?
Отговор
The belief that one's actions strongly influence outcomes.
Карта 452
Въпрос
Dispositional attribution?
Отговор
Explaining behavior through internal traits, motives, or abilities.
Карта 453
Въпрос
Pessimistic explanatory style?
Отговор
Explaining setbacks as lasting, widespread, and rooted in personal failure.
Карта 454
Въпрос
Relative deprivation?
Отговор
Feeling disadvantaged by comparing one's situation with the situation one believes others have.
Карта 455
Въпрос
External locus of control?
Отговор
The belief that outcomes mainly depend on luck, fate, or powerful outside forces.
Карта 456
Въпрос
Fundamental attribution error?
Отговор
Overestimating personality and underestimating the situation when explaining someone else's behavior.
Карта 457
Въпрос
Halo effect?
Отговор
One favorable trait shapes an overly positive overall judgment of a person.
Карта 458
Въпрос
Self-fulfilling prophecy?
Отговор
An expectation changes behavior in ways that help make the expected outcome occur.
Карта 459
Въпрос
Mere-exposure effect?
Отговор
Repeated exposure to a neutral stimulus can increase liking.
Карта 460
Въпрос
A person blames their own lateness on traffic but another person's lateness on carelessness. Which attribution pattern is this?
Отговор
The actor–observer difference.
Карта 461
Въпрос
A voter compares evidence and checks the logic of a policy argument. Which persuasion route is being used?
Отговор
The central route.
Карта 462
Въпрос
Effort justification?
Отговор
Valuing an outcome more after investing substantial effort in it, which reduces dissonance.
Карта 463
Въпрос
Stereotype?
Отговор
A generalized belief about members of a group.
Карта 464
Въпрос
A student credits skill for an A but blames an unfair test for an F. Which bias does this show?
Отговор
Self-serving bias.
Карта 465
Въпрос
A shopper favors an unfamiliar product because a popular celebrity endorses it. Which persuasion route is being used?
Отговор
The peripheral route.
Карта 466
Въпрос
Someone praises a dull task for a tiny reward, then reports liking it more. Which dissonance principle fits?
Отговор
Insufficient justification: the small reward provides too little external explanation, so attitude change reduces dissonance.
Карта 467
Въпрос
Prejudice?
Отговор
An unjustified attitude or emotional response toward a group and its members.
Карта 468
Въпрос
The same 40 workers complete equal-length tasks under both workloads:
Workload Errors Low 2 High 8 Which attribution is better supported?
Отговор
A situational attribution is better supported: with the same workers and equal exposure, the high-workload condition has more errors, though the table alone doesn't prove causation.
Карта 469
Въпрос
Why does source credibility affect persuasion?
Отговор
People are more likely to accept a message from a source seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy.
Карта 470
Въпрос
Conformity?
Отговор
Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match a group.
Карта 471
Въпрос
Several witnesses each wait for someone else to help during an emergency. Which effect is this?
Отговор
The bystander effect.
Карта 472
Въпрос
Diffusion of responsibility?
Отговор
Each person feels less personally responsible when others are available to act.
Карта 473
Въпрос
How can taking on a role affect attitude?
Отговор
Repeated role-consistent behavior can gradually shift beliefs and self-perception.
Карта 474
Въпрос
In-group bias?
Отговор
Favoring one's own group over other groups.
Карта 475
Въпрос
After agreeing to display a small safety sticker, a resident later agrees to place a large sign. Which technique is this?
Отговор
The foot-in-the-door technique.
Карта 476
Въпрос
A researcher recruits the first 60 students leaving one school cafeteria. What sampling method is this, and what is the main limit?
Отговор
Convenience sampling; the sample may not represent the school's students or a broader population as well as a random sample would.
Карта 477
Въпрос
When do attitudes best predict behavior?
Отговор
When the attitude is specific, accessible, personally important, and social pressure is limited.
Карта 478
Въпрос
Discrimination?
Отговор
Unjustified behavior toward people because of group membership.
Карта 479
Въпрос
Out-group homogeneity effect?
Отговор
Perceiving members of another group as more alike than members of one's own group.
Карта 480
Въпрос
After refusing an extreme request, a person agrees to a smaller related request. Which technique is this?
Отговор
The door-in-the-face technique.
Карта 481
Въпрос
A study finds r = +0.72 between attention to message evidence and attitude change. What does the coefficient show?
Отговор
A strong positive association: greater attention tends to accompany greater attitude change, but the correlation does not establish causation.
Карта 482
Въпрос
Persuasion ratings cluster near 2 and 9 on a 10-point scale, with few scores near 5. What distribution shape does this suggest?
Отговор
A bimodal distribution, with two distinct peaks.
Карта 483
Въпрос
Just-world belief?
Отговор
The assumption that people generally get what they deserve, which can encourage victim blaming.
Карта 484
Въпрос
Implicit attitude?
Отговор
An automatic evaluation that can affect responses without deliberate awareness.
Карта 485
Въпрос
Ethnocentrism?
Отговор
Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture and treating one's own as superior.
Карта 486
Въпрос
How do confirmation bias and belief perseverance maintain an attitude?
Отговор
People may favor supporting evidence and retain the belief even after its original support is discredited.
Карта 487
Въпрос
Normative social influence?
Отговор
Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.
Карта 488
Въпрос
Psychodynamic view of personality?
Отговор
Unconscious conflicts and motives influence personality and behavior.
Карта 489
Въпрос
Norm of reciprocity?
Отговор
The expectation that people should return help or favors.
Карта 490
Въпрос
Individualism?
Отговор
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to personal goals, autonomy, and individual identity.
Карта 491
Въпрос
Informational social influence?
Отговор
Conforming because the group is treated as a source of accurate information.
Карта 492
Въпрос
Id?
Отговор
The psychodynamic component driven by immediate gratification and the pleasure principle.
Карта 493
Въпрос
Altruism?
Отговор
Helping intended to benefit another person without requiring a personal reward.
Карта 494
Въпрос
Social norm?
Отговор
A group's shared expectation about acceptable behavior.
Карта 495
Въпрос
What tends to increase conformity?
Отговор
Unanimity, group size up to a point, public responses, ambiguity, and group importance.
Карта 496
Въпрос
Ego?
Отговор
The psychodynamic component that manages reality and balances competing demands.
Карта 497
Въпрос
A skilled runner improves before a crowd, but a beginner makes more errors. Which group effect fits?
Отговор
Social facilitation: an audience strengthens the dominant response.
Карта 498
Въпрос
Collectivism?
Отговор
A cultural orientation that gives greater priority to group goals, interdependence, and shared identity.
Карта 499
Въпрос
Obedience?
Отговор
Changing behavior in response to a direct command from an authority.
Карта 500
Въпрос
Superego?
Отговор
The psychodynamic component representing internalized moral standards.
Карта 501
Въпрос
A person continues acting as if a painful diagnosis cannot be real despite clear evidence. Which defense mechanism fits?
Отговор
Denial.
Карта 502
Въпрос
Social-responsibility norm?
Отговор
The expectation that people should help those who depend on them or need assistance.
Карта 503
Въпрос
How does proximity affect attraction?
Отговор
Frequent contact creates opportunities for familiarity and relationship development.
Карта 504
Въпрос
What tends to increase obedience?
Отговор
A legitimate nearby authority, gradual escalation, institutional support, and distance from the affected person.
Карта 505
Въпрос
After an argument with a supervisor, an employee snaps at a roommate. Which defense mechanism fits?
Отговор
Displacement.
Карта 506
Въпрос
Social loafing?
Отговор
Exerting less effort when individual contributions to a group task aren't identifiable.
Карта 507
Въпрос
Multiculturalism?
Отговор
Recognizing and supporting distinct cultural identities within a shared society or institution.
Карта 508
Въпрос
How does similarity affect attraction?
Отговор
Shared attitudes, values, and interests often increase liking.
Карта 509
Въпрос
A person who feels hostile insists that everyone else is hostile toward them. Which defense mechanism fits?
Отговор
Projection.
Карта 510
Въпрос
Helping falls as group size rises. Best explanation?
Отговор
Responsibility diffuses across more bystanders; the result doesn't show that groups eliminate empathy.
Карта 511
Въпрос
Deindividuation?
Отговор
Reduced self-awareness and restraint in an anonymous or arousing group setting.
Карта 512
Въпрос
Group polarization?
Отговор
Discussion strengthens the group's initial average tendency.
Карта 513
Въпрос
After being rejected, an applicant says the opportunity was worthless anyway. Which defense mechanism fits?
Отговор
Rationalization.
Карта 514
Въпрос
A cohesive team ignores warnings and pressures doubters to preserve agreement. Which process is this?
Отговор
Groupthink.
Карта 515
Въпрос
Pluralistic ignorance?
Отговор
People privately reject a norm or perceive danger but assume others' calm behavior means it is accepted or safe.
Карта 516
Въпрос
Social trap?
Отговор
Individuals pursue short-term self-interest that produces a worse long-term outcome for everyone.
Карта 517
Въпрос
Reaction formation?
Отговор
Expressing the opposite of an unacceptable impulse.
Карта 518
Въпрос
Superordinate goal?
Отговор
A shared goal that competing groups can reach only through cooperation.
Карта 519
Въпрос
False-consensus effect?
Отговор
Overestimating how widely other people share one's beliefs or behavior.
Карта 520
Въпрос
Industrial-organizational psychology?
Отговор
Applying psychological science to work, organizations, hiring, performance, and employee well-being.
Карта 521
Въпрос
Repression?
Отговор
Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts or impulses from awareness.
Карта 522
Въпрос
Burnout?
Отговор
Work-related exhaustion, detachment or cynicism, and reduced sense of effectiveness after chronic stress.
Карта 523
Въпрос
Unconditional positive regard?
Отговор
Acceptance and respect that aren't dependent on meeting another person's conditions.
Карта 524
Въпрос
Trait?
Отговор
A relatively stable tendency to think, feel, or behave in a certain way.
Карта 525
Въпрос
Regression as a defense mechanism?
Отговор
Reverting to an earlier pattern of behavior when facing stress or conflict.
Карта 526
Въпрос
Reciprocal determinism?
Отговор
Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence one another.
Карта 527
Въпрос
Self-efficacy?
Отговор
Belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or meet a challenge.
Карта 528
Въпрос
Self-concept in humanistic theory?
Отговор
A person's organized understanding of who they are.
Карта 529
Въпрос
Sublimation as a defense mechanism?
Отговор
Redirecting an unacceptable impulse into a socially valued activity.
Карта 530
Въпрос
A person seeks novel ideas, art, and unfamiliar experiences. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Отговор
Openness.
Карта 531
Въпрос
Personality inventory?
Отговор
A standardized self-report questionnaire used to measure traits or patterns.
Карта 532
Въпрос
Self-actualizing tendency?
Отговор
The humanistic idea that people are motivated to grow and fulfill their capacities.
Карта 533
Въпрос
Self-esteem?
Отговор
A person's overall evaluation of their worth or value.
Карта 534
Въпрос
Instinct in motivation research?
Отговор
An innate, typically fixed behavior pattern in nonhuman animals; this framework doesn't classify human motivation as instinctual.
Карта 535
Въпрос
A person plans carefully, meets deadlines, and follows through. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Отговор
Conscientiousness.
Карта 536
Въпрос
Projective test?
Отговор
An ambiguous stimulus used to invite responses thought to reflect inner themes; reliability and validity can be limited.
Карта 537
Въпрос
How does factor analysis help trait research?
Отговор
It identifies clusters of correlated behaviors or questionnaire items that may reflect broader traits.
Карта 538
Въпрос
Drive-reduction theory?
Отговор
A physiological need creates arousal that motivates behavior to restore balance.
Карта 539
Въпрос
A person is sociable, assertive, and energized by group interaction. Which Big Five trait is most evident?
Отговор
Extraversion.
Карта 540
Въпрос
Person–situation debate?
Отговор
It asks how much behavior reflects stable traits versus changing contexts.
Карта 541
Въпрос
A training study reports Cohen's d = 0.65 for improvement in self-efficacy. What does this statistic describe?
Отговор
The standardized size of the group difference; 0.65 is commonly interpreted as a moderate effect, not proof that the result will matter equally in every setting.
Карта 542
Въпрос
Homeostasis?
Отговор
The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal state.
Карта 543
Въпрос
Incentive theory?
Отговор
External rewards or goals pull behavior toward them.
Карта 544
Въпрос
Big Five agreeableness?
Отговор
Compassion, trust, and cooperativeness.
Карта 545
Въпрос
A student retakes a questionnaire after an unusually low self-efficacy score and scores closer to their usual level. What statistical tendency may explain part of the change?
Отговор
Regression toward the mean: an extreme score is often followed by a less extreme score because temporary influences are unlikely to repeat exactly.
Карта 546
Въпрос
A student must choose between two appealing internships. Which motivational conflict is this?
Отговор
An approach–approach conflict.
Карта 547
Въпрос
Arousal theory of motivation?
Отговор
People seek a personally suitable level of stimulation.
Карта 548
Въпрос
Big Five emotional stability?
Отговор
A tendency toward calm and resilience; it is the inverse of neuroticism.
Карта 549
Въпрос
What regulates hunger?
Отговор
Biological signals such as ghrelin and leptin interact with learning, culture, stress, and food cues.
Карта 550
Въпрос
Three broad components of emotion?
Отговор
Physiological arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience or appraisal.
Карта 551
Въпрос
Self-determination theory?
Отговор
Motivation grows when autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported.
Карта 552
Въпрос
Emotion regulation?
Отговор
Processes used to influence which emotions arise, when they arise, and how they are expressed.
Карта 553
Въпрос
Sensation-seeking?
Отговор
A tendency to pursue novel, varied, or intense experiences, sometimes despite risk.
Карта 554
Въпрос
Cognitive appraisal in emotion?
Отговор
Interpreting what an event means for one's goals, safety, or well-being.
Карта 555
Въпрос
Intrinsic motivation?
Отговор
Doing an activity for its own interest or satisfaction.
Карта 556
Въпрос
Display rules?
Отговор
Cultural norms that shape when and how emotions are expressed.
Карта 557
Въпрос
Arousal and performance relationship?
Отговор
Moderate arousal often supports difficult tasks, while higher arousal can help simple or well-learned tasks.
Карта 558
Въпрос
A promotion offers higher pay but requires an unwanted move. Which motivational conflict is this?
Отговор
An approach–avoidance conflict.
Карта 559
Въпрос
Extrinsic motivation?
Отговор
Doing an activity for an external reward or to avoid punishment.
Карта 560
Въпрос
Achievement motivation?
Отговор
The drive to meet standards, master tasks, and pursue success.
Карта 561
Въпрос
Four sensation-seeking dimensions?
Отговор
Thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility.
Карта 562
Въпрос
A person must either pay a fine or complete an unpleasant course. Which motivational conflict is this?
Отговор
An avoidance–avoidance conflict.
Карта 563
Въпрос
Overjustification effect?
Отговор
Expected external rewards can reduce intrinsic interest in an activity already enjoyed.
Карта 564
Въпрос
Belongingness motivation?
Отговор
The drive to form and maintain stable, positive relationships with other people.
Карта 565
Въпрос
Study time changed after students chose their own topic:
Condition Mean minutes Assigned topic 34 Chosen topic 47 What is the observed mean difference?
Отговор
13 minutes more in the chosen-topic condition; the table alone does not show whether the difference is statistically significant.
Карта 566
Въпрос
Facial-feedback effect?
Отговор
Facial expressions can influence the emotion a person experiences.
Карта 567
Въпрос
Can bodily arousal occur before conscious interpretation?
Отговор
Yes. Some emotional responses begin quickly, while later appraisal shapes the experience.
Карта 568
Въпрос
A speaker reframes a racing heart as readiness rather than danger. Which emotion-regulation strategy is this?
Отговор
Cognitive reappraisal.
Карта 569
Въпрос
Broaden-and-build view?
Отговор
Positive emotion can widen attention and action possibilities, helping build lasting resources.
Карта 570
Въпрос
Which emotions often appear across cultures?
Отговор
Anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear, though findings on universality are mixed.
Карта 571
Въпрос
How can the same arousal become different emotions?
Отговор
Context and cognitive interpretation can label similar physiological arousal differently.
Карта 572
Въпрос
Expressive suppression?
Отговор
Inhibiting the outward display of emotion after it has arisen.
Карта 573
Въпрос
How does acute stress affect the body?
Отговор
It activates sympathetic and hormonal responses that mobilize energy for immediate demands.
Карта 574
Въпрос
Cultures differ in public emotional expression. What shouldn't be concluded?
Отговор
That people in one culture don't experience the emotion; display rules can alter expression.
Карта 575
Въпрос
In a medication study, neither participants nor outcome raters know who receives the active drug or an inactive pill. What two safeguards are present?
Отговор
A placebo control and double-blinding, which reduce expectancy effects and observer bias.
Карта 576
Въпрос
A scatterplot rises from lower left to upper right, with points close to a line. What relationship does it show?
Отговор
A strong positive correlation: higher values of one variable tend to occur with higher values of the other.
Карта 577
Въпрос
Health psychology?
Отговор
The study of how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness.
Карта 578
Въпрос
Positive psychology?
Отговор
The scientific study of strengths, well-being, and conditions that help people and communities thrive.
Карта 579
Въпрос
Stress?
Отговор
The process of appraising and responding to events viewed as threatening or demanding.
Карта 580
Въпрос
A study records stress ratings from 1 to 10 and also collects open-ended descriptions. Which data are quantitative and which are qualitative?
Отговор
The numeric ratings are quantitative; the written descriptions are qualitative.
Карта 581
Въпрос
Why do sleep, exercise, and nutrition matter to health psychology?
Отговор
They are behaviors that interact with stress and biology to influence health outcomes.
Карта 582
Въпрос
Resilience?
Отговор
Adapting or recovering after adversity; it is a process, not a guarantee of being unaffected.
Карта 583
Въпрос
Stressor?
Отговор
An event or condition that challenges a person's ability to cope.
Карта 584
Въпрос
General adaptation syndrome?
Отговор
A three-phase pattern of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion under prolonged stress.
Карта 585
Въпрос
A worker makes a schedule and asks for resources to reduce a controllable workload. Which coping approach is this?
Отговор
Problem-focused coping.
Карта 586
Въпрос
A stress study uses nonhuman animals. What ethical duties apply?
Отговор
Researchers need scientific justification, humane care, the least possible pain and distress, and oversight by an institutional animal care and use committee.
Карта 587
Въпрос
A student first judges whether an upcoming exam threatens an important goal. Which appraisal is this?
Отговор
Primary appraisal.
Карта 588
Въпрос
What happens during the alarm phase of general adaptation syndrome?
Отговор
A fight, flight, or freeze response mobilizes resources when the stressor is first encountered.
Карта 589
Въпрос
How can major trauma and daily hassles both create stress?
Отговор
One can overwhelm through intensity, while repeated smaller demands can accumulate over time.
Карта 590
Въпрос
A person uses breathing and social support to manage feelings about an unchangeable loss. Which coping approach is this?
Отговор
Emotion-focused coping.
Карта 591
Въпрос
The student next considers available study time, tutoring, and coping options. Which appraisal is this?
Отговор
Secondary appraisal.
Карта 592
Въпрос
Why can prolonged exhaustion increase illness risk?
Отговор
Stress resources are depleted, and sustained physiological activation can weaken health and immune function.
Карта 593
Въпрос
Adverse childhood experiences?
Отговор
Potentially traumatic childhood conditions linked with higher later health risks, without determining any one person's outcome.
Карта 594
Въпрос
How can social support protect health?
Отговор
It provides practical help, belonging, perspective, and a buffer against stress.
Карта 595
Въпрос
Eustress versus distress?
Отговор
Eustress is experienced as motivating or manageable; distress is experienced as harmful or overwhelming.
Карта 596
Въпрос
Tend-and-befriend response?
Отговор
Coping with stress by caring for needs and seeking supportive connection, a pattern observed especially among women.
Карта 597
Въпрос
Two interviewees say, “After the setback, I adjusted my plan” and “I recovered and kept working toward my goal.” Which well-being concept appears in both qualitative responses?
Отговор
Resilience; both accounts describe adapting or recovering after adversity.
Карта 598
Въпрос
Biofeedback?
Отговор
Using real-time information about bodily activity to learn voluntary regulation of that activity.
Карта 599
Въпрос
How does perceived control affect stress?
Отговор
A sense of control often reduces stress, while uncontrollability can intensify it.
Карта 600
Въпрос
Psychoneuroimmunology?
Отговор
The study of interactions among psychological processes, the nervous system, hormones, and immune function.
Карта 601
Въпрос
Subjective well-being?
Отговор
A person's life satisfaction together with the balance of positive and negative emotion.
Карта 602
Въпрос
Psychological disorder?
Отговор
A clinically significant disturbance in thought, emotion, or behavior that causes distress or impairment.
Карта 603
Въпрос
How can gratitude practice affect well-being?
Отговор
Regularly noticing valued experiences can increase positive emotion for some people, though effects vary.
Карта 604
Въпрос
A school survey samples 120 students from a population of 1,800 enrolled students. What are the sample and population?
Отговор
The 120 respondents are the sample; all 1,800 enrolled students are the target population.
Карта 605
Въпрос
Signature strengths?
Отговор
Character strengths that are especially central and natural to a person and can be used deliberately.
Карта 606
Въпрос
Biopsychosocial model?
Отговор
Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact in health and disorder.
Карта 607
Въпрос
Six broad virtue categories in positive psychology?
Отговор
Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
Карта 608
Въпрос
Posttraumatic growth?
Отговор
Positive psychological change that can develop through struggling with trauma or major stress; it doesn't erase harm.
Карта 609
Въпрос
An optional well-being survey is completed mostly by students who already attend wellness clubs. How does this affect generalizability?
Отговор
Self-selection creates sampling bias, so the results may not generalize to students with different interests or experiences.
Карта 610
Въпрос
A survey asks people to report how often they exercise. What limitation should the researcher consider?
Отговор
Self-report can be distorted by inaccurate memory, question wording, or socially desirable answers.
Карта 611
Въпрос
A treatment comparison reports p = .03 with a preset alpha of .05. Is the result statistically significant?
Отговор
Yes. Because .03 is below .05, the result is statistically significant, though that does not show the effect is large or important.
Карта 612
Въпрос
A striking well-being result appears in one small study. What should happen before confidence grows?
Отговор
Independent replication and critical peer review should test whether the finding is reliable and the methods support the claim.
Карта 613
Въпрос
Biological explanation of disorder?
Отговор
It focuses on genetic, neural, hormonal, or other physiological factors.
Карта 614
Въпрос
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
Отговор
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving developmentally inappropriate inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that impairs functioning.
Карта 615
Въпрос
Purpose of the DSM?
Отговор
It supplies shared diagnostic categories and criteria for communication, research, and treatment planning.
Карта 616
Въпрос
What must informed consent explain before people join a psychology study?
Отговор
The study's general nature, foreseeable risks and benefits, confidentiality limits, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw. Research with minors also generally requires guardian permission and the child's assent.
Карта 617
Въпрос
Behavioral explanation of disorder?
Отговор
It focuses on maladaptive responses learned through conditioning or observation.
Карта 618
Въпрос
Autism spectrum disorder?
Отговор
A neurodevelopmental disorder involving differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior, with varied support needs.
Карта 619
Въпрос
Schizophrenia's broad symptom areas?
Отговор
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought or speech, disorganized movement, and negative symptoms.
Карта 620
Въпрос
Major depressive disorder?
Отговор
A sustained depressive episode with mood, cognitive, physical, and motivational changes that impair functioning.
Карта 621
Въпрос
Specific phobia?
Отговор
Intense, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that leads to avoidance or distress.
Карта 622
Въпрос
Obsessive-compulsive disorder?
Отговор
Obsessions, compulsions, or both consume time or cause significant distress or impairment.
Карта 623
Въпрос
Dissociative amnesia?
Отговор
Inability to recall important autobiographical information, usually related to trauma or stress, beyond ordinary forgetting.
Карта 624
Въпрос
Bipolar I disorder?
Отговор
A bipolar disorder defined by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
Карта 625
Въпрос
Posttraumatic stress disorder?
Отговор
Persistent intrusion, avoidance, negative mood or thinking, and heightened arousal after trauma exposure.
Карта 626
Въпрос
Anorexia nervosa?
Отговор
Persistent energy restriction, significantly low body weight, intense fear of weight gain, and disturbed body experience.
Карта 627
Въпрос
Cognitive explanation of disorder?
Отговор
It focuses on maladaptive beliefs, interpretations, and thinking patterns.
Карта 628
Въпрос
Bipolar II disorder?
Отговор
A bipolar disorder involving hypomanic and major depressive episodes without a full manic episode.
Карта 629
Въпрос
Purpose of the ICD?
Отговор
The World Health Organization's classification system supplies internationally used codes and categories for health conditions, including mental disorders.
Карта 630
Въпрос
Bulimia nervosa?
Отговор
Repeated binge eating followed by compensatory behavior, with self-evaluation strongly influenced by body shape or weight.
Карта 631
Въпрос
What broadly defines a personality disorder pattern?
Отговор
An enduring, inflexible pattern that departs from cultural expectations, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment.
Карта 632
Въпрос
Ataque de nervios?
Отговор
A culture-related syndrome, described especially in some Latin American and Caribbean communities, involving an acute episode of intense emotional distress and loss of control.
Карта 633
Въпрос
Psychodynamic explanation of disorder?
Отговор
It focuses on unconscious conflicts and early relationships.
Карта 634
Въпрос
Three considerations when identifying a psychological disorder?
Отговор
Dysfunction, experienced distress, and deviation from social norms, interpreted with cultural context.
Карта 635
Въпрос
When may deception be ethically considered in research, and what must follow?
Отговор
Only when justified, minimal-risk, and not replaceable by a practical alternative; researchers must debrief participants promptly and explain the deception.
Карта 636
Въпрос
Comorbidity?
Отговор
The presence of two or more disorders in the same person.
Карта 637
Въпрос
Humanistic explanation of distress?
Отговор
It focuses on blocked growth, incongruence, and conditions of worth.
Карта 638
Въпрос
Confidential versus anonymous research data?
Отговор
Confidential data can be linked to identities but are protected; anonymous data are collected without identifying links.
Карта 639
Въпрос
Stigma around mental disorder?
Отговор
Negative stereotypes and discrimination that can increase distress and discourage help-seeking.
Карта 640
Въпрос
Why must diagnosis consider culture?
Отговор
Norms affect how distress is expressed and interpreted, so behavior can't be judged outside its context.
Карта 641
Въпрос
Sociocultural explanation of disorder?
Отговор
It focuses on social roles, inequality, relationships, discrimination, and cultural context.
Карта 642
Въпрос
Two clinicians independently use the same criteria. What quality is being checked?
Отговор
Interrater reliability.
Карта 643
Въпрос
A category improves communication but overlaps another category. Balanced conclusion?
Отговор
Classification is useful, but boundaries and comorbidity limit the idea of perfectly separate disorders.
Карта 644
Въпрос
Best account of neurodevelopmental-disorder causes?
Отговор
Genetic, physiological, and environmental factors may interact; no single cause explains every case.
Карта 645
Въпрос
Evolutionary explanation of disorder?
Отговор
It asks whether a behavior or mental process reflects an adaptation, mismatch, or cost related to survival and reproduction.
Карта 646
Въпрос
Delusion?
Отговор
A firmly held false belief that persists despite strong contrary evidence and isn't explained by cultural context.
Карта 647
Въпрос
Agoraphobia?
Отговор
Intense fear of situations where escape or help may feel difficult, such as crowds, transit, open spaces, or being outside alone.
Карта 648
Въпрос
Best account of schizophrenia risk?
Отговор
Biological vulnerability, including genetic and neural factors, interacts with prenatal and later environmental stressors.
Карта 649
Въпрос
Eclectic approach to disorder?
Отговор
Using ideas or treatments from more than one psychological perspective when evidence and client needs support them.
Карта 650
Въпрос
Hallucination?
Отговор
A sensory perception without a matching external stimulus.
Карта 651
Въпрос
Panic disorder?
Отговор
Recurrent unexpected panic attacks followed by continuing concern or behavior change related to more attacks.
Карта 652
Въпрос
Best account of depressive-disorder causes?
Отговор
Biological vulnerability can interact with learning, cognition, relationships, culture, and stressful events.
Карта 653
Въпрос
Two people face the same stressor, but the person with greater underlying vulnerability develops symptoms. Which model fits?
Отговор
The diathesis–stress model.
Карта 654
Въпрос
Cluster A personality disorders?
Отговор
The odd or eccentric cluster: paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
Карта 655
Въпрос
What do psychotherapy meta-analyses generally find?
Отговор
Psychotherapy is effective on average, while outcomes vary by problem, method, therapist, and client.
Карта 656
Въпрос
Evidence-based treatment?
Отговор
Using the best research evidence together with clinical expertise and the client's needs, culture, and preferences.
Карта 657
Въпрос
Therapeutic alliance?
Отговор
A collaborative, trusting relationship in which client and therapist agree on goals and work.
Карта 658
Въпрос
Cultural humility in therapy?
Отговор
Ongoing self-reflection, respect, and willingness to learn from the client's cultural experience.
Карта 659
Въпрос
Deinstitutionalization?
Отговор
Moving many people from long-term psychiatric hospitals toward community-based care, aided partly by medication.
Карта 660
Въпрос
A client safely approaches a feared situation in planned steps instead of avoiding it. Which treatment method is this?
Отговор
Exposure therapy.
Карта 661
Въпрос
Nonmaleficence in therapy?
Отговор
Avoiding or minimizing harm.
Карта 662
Въпрос
Four medication categories in the course?
Отговор
Antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, and antipsychotic medications.
Карта 663
Въпрос
Depressive cognitive triad?
Отговор
Negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.
Карта 664
Въпрос
Applied behavior analysis?
Отговор
Using measured learning principles to change socially significant behavior.
Карта 665
Въпрос
Psychosurgery?
Отговор
Rare invasive treatment that alters brain tissue; modern use is tightly limited because effects can be irreversible.
Карта 666
Въпрос
Free association?
Отговор
A psychodynamic technique in which a client says whatever comes to mind to explore unconscious themes.
Карта 667
Въпрос
A client examines evidence for an automatic thought and develops a more accurate alternative. Which technique is this?
Отговор
Cognitive restructuring.
Карта 668
Въпрос
One advantage of group therapy?
Отговор
Members can receive support, feedback, and practice with others while learning they aren't alone.
Карта 669
Въпрос
Lobotomy?
Отговор
An obsolete form of psychosurgery that cut frontal-lobe connections and often caused severe, irreversible harm.
Карта 670
Въпрос
Best account of bipolar-disorder causes?
Отговор
Biological and genetic influences are important, while stress and social context can affect episodes.
Карта 671
Въпрос
Cognitive-behavioral therapy?
Отговор
Treatment that changes maladaptive thinking and behavior together.
Карта 672
Въпрос
Disorganized speech in schizophrenia?
Отговор
Speech becomes difficult to follow because ideas or words are connected in disordered ways.
Карта 673
Въпрос
Social anxiety disorder?
Отговор
Intense fear of scrutiny or negative evaluation in social situations.
Карта 674
Въпрос
Best account of obsessive-compulsive-disorder causes?
Отговор
Biological factors and learned relief from compulsions can combine with maladaptive beliefs.
Карта 675
Въпрос
Rational-emotive behavior therapy?
Отговор
A cognitive-behavioral approach that challenges rigid, irrational beliefs and builds more workable alternatives.
Карта 676
Въпрос
Dissociative fugue?
Отговор
Dissociative amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or confusion about identity.
Карта 677
Въпрос
Cluster B personality disorders?
Отговор
The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
Карта 678
Въпрос
Best account of anxiety-disorder causes?
Отговор
Biological vulnerability, learned fear, avoidance, and maladaptive interpretation can interact.
Карта 679
Въпрос
Catatonia?
Отговор
Markedly disordered movement, which can include unusual excitement or profound lack of movement.
Карта 680
Въпрос
Manic episode?
Отговор
A distinct period of unusually elevated or irritable mood and increased energy severe enough to cause major impairment or require hospitalization.
Карта 681
Въпрос
Dissociative identity disorder?
Отговор
Disruption of identity involving distinct personality states and gaps in autobiographical memory.
Карта 682
Въпрос
Best account of feeding and eating disorder causes?
Отговор
Biological, cognitive, behavioral, family, social, and cultural factors can interact.
Карта 683
Въпрос
Cluster C personality disorders?
Отговор
The anxious or fearful cluster: avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
Карта 684
Въпрос
Taijin kyofusho?
Отговор
A culture-related syndrome described in Japan involving intense fear that one's appearance, gaze, odor, or behavior will offend or embarrass other people.
Карта 685
Въпрос
Negative symptom of schizophrenia?
Отговор
A reduction in a typical function, such as emotional expression, speech, motivation, or movement.
Карта 686
Въпрос
What experiences are often linked with dissociative disorders?
Отговор
Severe trauma or stress, though diagnosis requires careful assessment and isn't inferred from trauma alone.
Карта 687
Въпрос
Hypomanic episode?
Отговор
A noticeable period of elevated or irritable mood and increased energy that is less severe and impairing than mania.
Карта 688
Въпрос
Generalized anxiety disorder?
Отговор
Persistent, hard-to-control anxiety and worry across several areas of life.
Карта 689
Въпрос
Hoarding disorder?
Отговор
Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, producing clutter that impairs the use of living spaces.
Карта 690
Въпрос
Best account of personality-disorder causes?
Отговор
Biological dispositions and long-term social, cultural, learning, and cognitive influences can interact.
Карта 691
Въпрос
Why can't one symptom establish a disorder?
Отговор
Diagnosis depends on a broader pattern, duration, distress or impairment, context, and alternative explanations.
Карта 692
Въпрос
Persistent depressive disorder?
Отговор
A chronic depressed mood with related symptoms lasting at least two years in adults or one year in children and adolescents.
Карта 693
Въпрос
Fidelity in therapy ethics?
Отговор
Maintaining trust, responsibility, and professional commitments.
Карта 694
Въпрос
Systematic desensitization?
Отговор
Gradual exposure to a fear hierarchy while practicing relaxation or another incompatible response.
Карта 695
Въпрос
Dream interpretation in psychodynamic therapy?
Отговор
Exploring possible personal meanings and unconscious themes in dreams, not treating dreams as objective facts.
Карта 696
Въпрос
Dialectical behavior therapy?
Отговор
A cognitive-behavioral approach that builds mindfulness, emotion regulation, distress tolerance, and relationship skills.
Карта 697
Въпрос
Integrity in therapy ethics?
Отговор
Being honest and accurate in professional work.
Карта 698
Въпрос
Aversion therapy?
Отговор
Pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the behavior.
Карта 699
Въпрос
Tardive dyskinesia?
Отговор
A movement disorder that can occur as a serious side effect of long-term antipsychotic medication.
Карта 700
Въпрос
ECT versus TMS?
Отговор
ECT induces a controlled seizure under anesthesia; TMS uses magnetic pulses without surgery. Both can treat selected conditions.
Карта 701
Въпрос
Respect for rights and dignity?
Отговор
Protecting autonomy, privacy, confidentiality, and fair treatment.
Карта 702
Въпрос
A clinic awards points for target behaviors, and clients exchange the points for privileges. Which method is this?
Отговор
A token economy.
Карта 703
Въпрос
A therapist emphasizes empathy, genuineness, active listening, and unconditional positive regard. Which approach is this?
Отговор
Person-centered therapy.
Карта 704
Въпрос
What can hypnosis treat, and what can't it reliably do?
Отговор
It can help some pain and anxiety; it can't reliably recover accurate memories or produce true age regression.
Карта 705
Въпрос
Medication and psychotherapy outperform either alone for some conditions. Best conclusion?
Отговор
Combined treatment can be useful for some clients, but the best plan depends on the condition and individual evidence.
705 карти
AP Psychology Flashcards: Complete 5-Unit Course Review
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