What posture defines the standard anatomical position?

Standing upright, facing forward, with arms at the sides and palms forward. The feet point forward, giving anatomy a consistent reference position.

In anatomical language, what does superior mean?

Toward the head or above another structure. Inferior means toward the feet or below.

Which anatomical plane divides the body into left and right portions?

The sagittal plane. A midsagittal plane divides the body into equal left and right halves.

Why does the body use feedback mechanisms?

To regulate internal conditions. Feedback compares a condition with a set range and triggers responses that adjust it.

What is the order of structural organization from simplest to most complex?

Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism. Each level builds on interactions at the preceding level.

What does anterior mean in human anatomy?

Toward the front of the body. Posterior means toward the back.

Which plane divides the body into upper and lower portions?

The transverse plane. It is also called the horizontal plane.

The maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment. It is dynamic rather than perfectly unchanging.

Which major body cavity contains the brain and spinal cord?

The dorsal body cavity. Its cranial cavity holds the brain, and its vertebral cavity holds the spinal cord.

What does medial mean in anatomical language?

Toward the body's midline. Lateral means farther from the midline.

A rise in body temperature triggers sweating. What control pattern is this?

Negative feedback. The response opposes the original temperature change and moves the body toward its normal range.

Which anatomical plane divides the body into front and back portions?

The frontal, or coronal, plane. It separates anterior from posterior portions.

Which major body cavity contains the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities?

The ventral body cavity. The diaphragm separates its thoracic and abdominopelvic portions.

What does proximal mean when describing a limb?

Closer to the limb's point of attachment. Distal means farther from that point.

How does positive feedback differ from negative feedback?

Positive feedback amplifies the initial change. Negative feedback opposes a change; positive feedback continues until a stopping event occurs.

Which tissue type covers surfaces and lines body cavities?

Epithelial tissue. It also forms many glands and often serves protective, absorptive, or secretory roles.

Which tissue type mainly supports, binds, and protects other tissues?

Connective tissue. Its cells are typically separated by an extracellular matrix.

What shared property lets muscle tissue produce movement?

Contractility. Muscle cells shorten or develop tension in response to stimulation.

Which tissue type rapidly communicates by electrical signals?

Nervous tissue. Neurons transmit signals, while supporting cells help maintain their environment.

Why are tightly packed epithelial cells well suited for barriers?

They leave little space between cells. This continuous arrangement limits passage across a surface.

What distinguishes connective tissue from epithelial tissue?

Connective tissue usually has abundant extracellular matrix. Epithelial cells are more tightly packed.

What are the four basic human tissue types?

Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue. Organs contain two or more tissue types working together.

What makes a structure an organ rather than a tissue?

An organ combines multiple tissue types for a specific function. A tissue is a group of similar cells and matrix performing related work.

What are the skeletal system's main functions?

Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood-cell production, and fat storage. Bones also provide levers for muscles.

What belongs to the axial skeleton?

The skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. These structures form the body's central axis.

How do compact and spongy bone differ?

Compact bone is dense; spongy bone has a lattice of trabeculae. Both are organized living bone tissue.

A place where two or more bones meet. Joint structure determines how much movement is possible.

Which bone cell builds new bone matrix?

An osteoblast. Osteoclasts break down bone, while osteocytes maintain mature bone tissue.

What belongs to the appendicular skeleton?

The limbs plus the shoulder and pelvic girdles. It attaches the limbs to the axial skeleton.

What is the main role of red bone marrow?

Blood-cell production. This process is called hematopoiesis.

Which joint class allows the greatest range of motion?

A synovial joint. A fluid-filled joint cavity reduces friction between articulating surfaces.

Which bone cell breaks down bone matrix?

An osteoclast. Bone resorption helps remodeling and mineral balance.

What does a ligament connect?

Bone to bone. A tendon connects muscle to bone.

What is the shaft of a long bone called?

The diaphysis. The enlarged ends are the epiphyses.

Why is bone important to blood-calcium balance?

Bone stores calcium and can release or absorb it during remodeling. Hormones regulate this exchange.

What is stored mainly in yellow bone marrow?

Fat. It serves as an energy reserve.

What does articular cartilage do at a synovial joint?

It reduces friction and absorbs shock. It covers the ends of articulating bones.

Why must a broken bone receive a blood supply during healing?

Repairing cells need oxygen and nutrients. Restored blood vessels support fracture healing.

What is bone remodeling?

Continuous removal and replacement of bone tissue. It repairs microdamage and helps bones adapt to stress.

Which muscle tissue is usually under voluntary control?

Skeletal muscle. Most skeletal muscles move the skeleton, while some, such as facial muscles, insert into skin or other soft tissue.

The basic contractile unit of striated muscle. It lies between two Z discs.

What does a tendon connect?

Muscle to bone. It transmits muscle force to the skeleton.

Which proteins slide past one another during muscle contraction?

Actin and myosin. Their interaction shortens sarcomeres without shortening the filaments themselves.

Where is smooth muscle commonly found?

In the walls of hollow organs and blood vessels. Its contractions are generally involuntary.

What ion exposes binding sites needed for skeletal muscle contraction?

Calcium. Its release inside the muscle fiber allows actin and myosin interaction.

How do antagonistic muscle pairs move a joint?

One muscle contracts while the opposing muscle relaxes. Reversing their roles moves the joint in the opposite direction.

Why does muscle contraction require ATP?

ATP powers cross-bridge cycling and ion pumps. It is also needed for myosin to detach from actin.

Which muscle tissue makes up the heart wall?

Cardiac muscle. It is striated, involuntary, and connected for coordinated pumping.

During a typical muscle contraction, which attachment moves more: origin or insertion?

The insertion. The origin is generally the more fixed attachment.

Which type of neuron sends the signal that initiates skeletal-muscle contraction?

A somatic motor neuron. It releases acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction, triggering an action potential in the muscle fiber.

Continuous low-level muscle tension. It helps maintain posture and readiness without producing a large movement.

ATI TEAS 7 Science Flashcards: A&P, Biology, Chemistry & Scientific Reasoning

Practice 446 original ATI TEAS 7 Science recall and mini-scenario cards across A&P, biology, chemistry, and scientific reasoning.

Autor Flashcards Open Source App

O tomto balíčku

Build the core Science knowledge and reasoning used for ATI TEAS 7 with 446 independently authored flashcards.

What this deck practices

Structure or concept → function: body systems, cells, molecules, atoms, solutions, and experimental parts.
Function, outcome, or evidence → concept: selective reverse recall when recognizing the name matters in practice.
Cause or condition → effect: physiology, chemical changes, reaction conditions, inheritance, and experimental predictions.
Process and order: circulation, ventilation, digestion, urine formation, gene expression, cell division, and scientific investigations.
Application: short calculations, comparisons, data interpretations, and original mini-scenarios.

The deck does not mechanically reverse every fact. It excludes multiple-choice distractors, exhaustive anatomy lists, obscure chemical nomenclature, advanced pathophysiology, pharmacology, and nursing-school procedures because those mappings do not improve entry-level TEAS Science recall.

The sequence introduces prerequisites before dependent ideas: anatomical language before body systems, cells before genetics, atoms before reactions, and measurement before experimental design. Related forward and reverse variants are separated so one card does not immediately reveal another.

Coverage follows the four Science areas and relative emphasis in ATI's public ATI TEAS 7 content outline: Human Anatomy and Physiology, Biology, Chemistry, and Scientific Reasoning. The public outline defines scope only. Questions, answers, explanations, examples, and ordering were independently authored from common scientific knowledge checked against open educational and official public sources.

No exam question, mark scheme, paid ATI flashcard, test-bank item, or curriculum text was copied. This is an independent, unofficial educational deck by Flashcards Open Source App. ATI and TEAS are marks of Assessment Technologies Institute, L.L.C.; this deck is not affiliated with, endorsed by, or produced by ATI. See ATI's official exam details for current requirements.

Kartičky v tomto balíčku

Kartička 1
Otázka
What posture defines the standard anatomical position?
Odpoveď
Standing upright, facing forward, with arms at the sides and palms forward. The feet point forward, giving anatomy a consistent reference position.
Kartička 2
Otázka
In anatomical language, what does superior mean?
Odpoveď
Toward the head or above another structure. Inferior means toward the feet or below.
Kartička 3
Otázka
Which anatomical plane divides the body into left and right portions?
Odpoveď
The sagittal plane. A midsagittal plane divides the body into equal left and right halves.
Kartička 4
Otázka
Why does the body use feedback mechanisms?
Odpoveď
To regulate internal conditions. Feedback compares a condition with a set range and triggers responses that adjust it.
Kartička 5
Otázka
What is the order of structural organization from simplest to most complex?
Odpoveď
Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism. Each level builds on interactions at the preceding level.
Kartička 6
Otázka
What does anterior mean in human anatomy?
Odpoveď
Toward the front of the body. Posterior means toward the back.
Kartička 7
Otázka
Which plane divides the body into upper and lower portions?
Odpoveď
The transverse plane. It is also called the horizontal plane.
Kartička 8
Otázka
What is homeostasis?
Odpoveď
The maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment. It is dynamic rather than perfectly unchanging.
Kartička 9
Otázka
Which major body cavity contains the brain and spinal cord?
Odpoveď
The dorsal body cavity. Its cranial cavity holds the brain, and its vertebral cavity holds the spinal cord.
Kartička 10
Otázka
What does medial mean in anatomical language?
Odpoveď
Toward the body's midline. Lateral means farther from the midline.
Kartička 11
Otázka
A rise in body temperature triggers sweating. What control pattern is this?
Odpoveď
Negative feedback. The response opposes the original temperature change and moves the body toward its normal range.
Kartička 12
Otázka
Which anatomical plane divides the body into front and back portions?
Odpoveď
The frontal, or coronal, plane. It separates anterior from posterior portions.
Kartička 13
Otázka
Which major body cavity contains the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities?
Odpoveď
The ventral body cavity. The diaphragm separates its thoracic and abdominopelvic portions.
Kartička 14
Otázka
What does proximal mean when describing a limb?
Odpoveď
Closer to the limb's point of attachment. Distal means farther from that point.
Kartička 15
Otázka
How does positive feedback differ from negative feedback?
Odpoveď
Positive feedback amplifies the initial change. Negative feedback opposes a change; positive feedback continues until a stopping event occurs.
Kartička 16
Otázka
Which tissue type covers surfaces and lines body cavities?
Odpoveď
Epithelial tissue. It also forms many glands and often serves protective, absorptive, or secretory roles.
Kartička 17
Otázka
Which tissue type mainly supports, binds, and protects other tissues?
Odpoveď
Connective tissue. Its cells are typically separated by an extracellular matrix.
Kartička 18
Otázka
What shared property lets muscle tissue produce movement?
Odpoveď
Contractility. Muscle cells shorten or develop tension in response to stimulation.
Kartička 19
Otázka
Which tissue type rapidly communicates by electrical signals?
Odpoveď
Nervous tissue. Neurons transmit signals, while supporting cells help maintain their environment.
Kartička 20
Otázka
Why are tightly packed epithelial cells well suited for barriers?
Odpoveď
They leave little space between cells. This continuous arrangement limits passage across a surface.
Kartička 21
Otázka
What distinguishes connective tissue from epithelial tissue?
Odpoveď
Connective tissue usually has abundant extracellular matrix. Epithelial cells are more tightly packed.
Kartička 22
Otázka
What are the four basic human tissue types?
Odpoveď
Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue. Organs contain two or more tissue types working together.
Kartička 23
Otázka
What makes a structure an organ rather than a tissue?
Odpoveď
An organ combines multiple tissue types for a specific function. A tissue is a group of similar cells and matrix performing related work.
Kartička 24
Otázka
What are the skeletal system's main functions?
Odpoveď
Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood-cell production, and fat storage. Bones also provide levers for muscles.
Kartička 25
Otázka
What belongs to the axial skeleton?
Odpoveď
The skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. These structures form the body's central axis.
Kartička 26
Otázka
How do compact and spongy bone differ?
Odpoveď
Compact bone is dense; spongy bone has a lattice of trabeculae. Both are organized living bone tissue.
Kartička 27
Otázka
What is a joint?
Odpoveď
A place where two or more bones meet. Joint structure determines how much movement is possible.
Kartička 28
Otázka
Which bone cell builds new bone matrix?
Odpoveď
An osteoblast. Osteoclasts break down bone, while osteocytes maintain mature bone tissue.
Kartička 29
Otázka
What belongs to the appendicular skeleton?
Odpoveď
The limbs plus the shoulder and pelvic girdles. It attaches the limbs to the axial skeleton.
Kartička 30
Otázka
What is the main role of red bone marrow?
Odpoveď
Blood-cell production. This process is called hematopoiesis.
Kartička 31
Otázka
Which joint class allows the greatest range of motion?
Odpoveď
A synovial joint. A fluid-filled joint cavity reduces friction between articulating surfaces.
Kartička 32
Otázka
Which bone cell breaks down bone matrix?
Odpoveď
An osteoclast. Bone resorption helps remodeling and mineral balance.
Kartička 33
Otázka
What does a ligament connect?
Odpoveď
Bone to bone. A tendon connects muscle to bone.
Kartička 34
Otázka
What is the shaft of a long bone called?
Odpoveď
The diaphysis. The enlarged ends are the epiphyses.
Kartička 35
Otázka
Why is bone important to blood-calcium balance?
Odpoveď
Bone stores calcium and can release or absorb it during remodeling. Hormones regulate this exchange.
Kartička 36
Otázka
What is stored mainly in yellow bone marrow?
Odpoveď
Fat. It serves as an energy reserve.
Kartička 37
Otázka
What does articular cartilage do at a synovial joint?
Odpoveď
It reduces friction and absorbs shock. It covers the ends of articulating bones.
Kartička 38
Otázka
Why must a broken bone receive a blood supply during healing?
Odpoveď
Repairing cells need oxygen and nutrients. Restored blood vessels support fracture healing.
Kartička 39
Otázka
What is bone remodeling?
Odpoveď
Continuous removal and replacement of bone tissue. It repairs microdamage and helps bones adapt to stress.
Kartička 40
Otázka
Which muscle tissue is usually under voluntary control?
Odpoveď
Skeletal muscle. Most skeletal muscles move the skeleton, while some, such as facial muscles, insert into skin or other soft tissue.
Kartička 41
Otázka
What is a sarcomere?
Odpoveď
The basic contractile unit of striated muscle. It lies between two Z discs.
Kartička 42
Otázka
What does a tendon connect?
Odpoveď
Muscle to bone. It transmits muscle force to the skeleton.
Kartička 43
Otázka
Which proteins slide past one another during muscle contraction?
Odpoveď
Actin and myosin. Their interaction shortens sarcomeres without shortening the filaments themselves.
Kartička 44
Otázka
Where is smooth muscle commonly found?
Odpoveď
In the walls of hollow organs and blood vessels. Its contractions are generally involuntary.
Kartička 45
Otázka
What ion exposes binding sites needed for skeletal muscle contraction?
Odpoveď
Calcium. Its release inside the muscle fiber allows actin and myosin interaction.
Kartička 46
Otázka
How do antagonistic muscle pairs move a joint?
Odpoveď
One muscle contracts while the opposing muscle relaxes. Reversing their roles moves the joint in the opposite direction.
Kartička 47
Otázka
Why does muscle contraction require ATP?
Odpoveď
ATP powers cross-bridge cycling and ion pumps. It is also needed for myosin to detach from actin.
Kartička 48
Otázka
Which muscle tissue makes up the heart wall?
Odpoveď
Cardiac muscle. It is striated, involuntary, and connected for coordinated pumping.
Kartička 49
Otázka
During a typical muscle contraction, which attachment moves more: origin or insertion?
Odpoveď
The insertion. The origin is generally the more fixed attachment.
Kartička 50
Otázka
Which type of neuron sends the signal that initiates skeletal-muscle contraction?
Odpoveď
A somatic motor neuron. It releases acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction, triggering an action potential in the muscle fiber.
Kartička 51
Otázka
What is muscle tone?
Odpoveď
Continuous low-level muscle tension. It helps maintain posture and readiness without producing a large movement.
Kartička 52
Otázka
How does skeletal muscle help regulate body temperature?
Odpoveď
Contraction releases heat. Shivering increases rapid contractions when the body is cold.
Kartička 53
Otázka
What are the three muscle tissue types?
Odpoveď
Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. They differ in location, structure, and control.
Kartička 54
Otázka
What is a neuron's main function?
Odpoveď
To receive, process, and transmit information. Neurons use electrical signals and chemical messengers.
Kartička 55
Otázka
What structures make up the central nervous system?
Odpoveď
The brain and spinal cord. They integrate information and coordinate responses.
Kartička 56
Otázka
Which part of a neuron usually receives incoming signals?
Odpoveď
The dendrites. The cell body integrates much of that input.
Kartička 57
Otázka
What does the peripheral nervous system include?
Odpoveď
Nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord. It links the central nervous system with the rest of the body.
Kartička 58
Otázka
Which neuron structure carries an impulse away from the cell body?
Odpoveď
The axon. Its terminals communicate with another cell.
Kartička 59
Otázka
Which nervous-system division controls skeletal muscles voluntarily?
Odpoveď
The somatic nervous system. It also carries sensory information from skin, muscles, and joints.
Kartička 60
Otázka
What is a synapse?
Odpoveď
A junction where one neuron communicates with another cell. Chemical synapses use neurotransmitters across a small gap.
Kartička 61
Otázka
Which nervous-system division regulates organs and glands without conscious control?
Odpoveď
The autonomic nervous system. It includes sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
Kartička 62
Otázka
How does myelin affect nerve signaling?
Odpoveď
It speeds impulse conduction along an axon. Myelin insulates segments of the axon.
Kartička 63
Otázka
Which autonomic division prepares the body for acute activity?
Odpoveď
The sympathetic division. It generally increases alertness and supports a fight-or-flight response.
Kartička 64
Otázka
What is a reflex?
Odpoveď
A rapid, predictable response to a stimulus. A reflex pathway can act before conscious awareness.
Kartička 65
Otázka
Which autonomic division supports rest, digestion, and energy conservation?
Odpoveď
The parasympathetic division. It generally promotes routine maintenance functions.
Kartička 66
Otázka
Which brain region is most associated with conscious thought and voluntary movement?
Odpoveď
The cerebrum. Its cortex also processes much sensory information.
Kartička 67
Otázka
Which brain region fine-tunes balance and coordinated movement?
Odpoveď
The cerebellum. It compares intended movement with sensory feedback.
Kartička 68
Otázka
Which brain region controls vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate?
Odpoveď
The brainstem. It also connects higher brain regions with the spinal cord.
Kartička 69
Otázka
How do sensory and motor neurons differ?
Odpoveď
Sensory neurons carry information toward the CNS; motor neurons carry commands away. Interneurons connect and process signals within the CNS.
Kartička 70
Otázka
What does a sensory receptor do?
Odpoveď
It converts a stimulus into a neural signal. Different receptors respond best to particular forms of energy or chemicals.
Kartička 71
Otázka
What is a hormone?
Odpoveď
A chemical messenger released into body fluids to affect target cells. A target responds only if it has the appropriate receptor.
Kartička 72
Otázka
Why is the pituitary gland often called a master gland?
Odpoveď
Several pituitary hormones regulate other endocrine glands. The hypothalamus controls much of pituitary activity.
Kartička 73
Otázka
Why can one hormone affect some cells but not others?
Odpoveď
Only target cells have the matching receptor. Receptor binding starts the cell's response.
Kartička 74
Otázka
Which gland produces hormones that broadly increase metabolic activity?
Odpoveď
The thyroid gland. Thyroid hormones influence energy use and development.
Kartička 75
Otázka
What is insulin's main effect on blood glucose?
Odpoveď
It lowers blood glucose. Insulin promotes glucose uptake and storage after a meal.
Kartička 76
Otázka
Which glands release a hormone that raises blood calcium?
Odpoveď
The parathyroid glands. Parathyroid hormone acts on bone, kidneys, and vitamin D pathways.
Kartička 77
Otázka
Which adrenal region releases epinephrine during acute stress?
Odpoveď
The adrenal medulla. Its hormones reinforce sympathetic nervous-system effects.
Kartička 78
Otázka
Which organ has both endocrine and digestive functions?
Odpoveď
The pancreas. Its islets release hormones, while other cells release digestive enzymes.
Kartička 79
Otázka
What is glucagon's main effect on blood glucose?
Odpoveď
It raises blood glucose. It promotes release of stored glucose during fasting.
Kartička 80
Otázka
Rising thyroid hormone reduces its own upstream stimulation. What pattern is this?
Odpoveď
Negative feedback. The final hormone limits further release along the control pathway.
Kartička 81
Otázka
Which adrenal region produces steroid hormones such as cortisol and aldosterone?
Odpoveď
The adrenal cortex. It surrounds the adrenal medulla.
Kartička 82
Otázka
Which gland releases melatonin and helps regulate daily sleep timing?
Odpoveď
The pineal gland. Light information influences its secretion pattern.
Kartička 83
Otázka
Which hormone directly increases collecting-duct water permeability?
Odpoveď
Antidiuretic hormone, or ADH. It makes collecting ducts more permeable to water, increasing water reabsorption and usually producing less, more concentrated urine.
Kartička 84
Otázka
Which hormone strengthens uterine contractions during labor?
Odpoveď
Oxytocin. This is a classic positive-feedback pathway that ends after delivery.
Kartička 85
Otázka
How does endocrine signaling generally differ from nervous signaling?
Odpoveď
It is usually slower to start and longer lasting. Hormones travel through body fluids, while neurons signal specific targets rapidly.
Kartička 86
Otázka
What is plasma?
Odpoveď
The liquid portion of blood. It carries cells, nutrients, hormones, proteins, wastes, and dissolved gases.
Kartička 87
Otázka
Which side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs?
Odpoveď
The right side. The right ventricle sends deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary trunk and arteries.
Kartička 88
Otázka
What is the main function of red blood cells?
Odpoveď
Transporting oxygen. Their hemoglobin also carries a smaller share of carbon dioxide.
Kartička 89
Otázka
What defines an artery?
Odpoveď
It carries blood away from the heart. Oxygen content does not define it; pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood.
Kartička 90
Otázka
What is the main function of white blood cells?
Odpoveď
Body defense. Different white blood cells recognize, attack, or coordinate responses to threats.
Kartička 91
Otázka
Which side of the heart pumps blood into systemic circulation?
Odpoveď
The left side. The left ventricle sends oxygenated blood into the aorta.
Kartička 92
Otázka
What is the main purpose of heart valves?
Odpoveď
To keep blood moving in one direction. Pressure differences open and close them.
Kartička 93
Otázka
What defines a vein?
Odpoveď
It carries blood toward the heart. Many veins contain valves that limit backflow.
Kartička 94
Otázka
What is the main role of platelets?
Odpoveď
Helping stop bleeding. They form a platelet plug and support clotting reactions at a damaged vessel.
Kartička 95
Otázka
Why are capillaries well suited for exchange?
Odpoveď
Their walls are only one cell layer thick. Their small diameter and large total surface area support diffusion and filtration.
Kartička 96
Otázka
After blood enters the right atrium, what chamber receives it next?
Odpoveď
The right ventricle. Blood passes through the tricuspid valve before entering that chamber.
Kartička 97
Otázka
What happens during ventricular systole?
Odpoveď
The ventricles contract and eject blood. The right ventricle pumps to the lungs, and the left pumps to the body.
Kartička 98
Otázka
What is pulmonary circulation?
Odpoveď
Blood flow between the heart and lungs. It allows gas exchange and returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium.
Kartička 99
Otázka
What normally sets the heart's rhythm?
Odpoveď
The sinoatrial, or SA, node. Its spontaneous electrical activity initiates each heartbeat.
Kartička 100
Otázka
What molecule in red blood cells binds oxygen?
Odpoveď
Hemoglobin. Its iron-containing heme groups bind oxygen reversibly.
Kartička 101
Otázka
What happens during ventricular diastole?
Odpoveď
The ventricles relax and fill. Atrioventricular valves are open during most ventricular filling.
Kartička 102
Otázka
What is systemic circulation?
Odpoveď
Blood flow between the heart and the body's tissues. It delivers oxygen and nutrients and returns wastes.
Kartička 103
Otázka
What does arterial blood pressure measure?
Odpoveď
The force of blood against artery walls. It is commonly reported as systolic over diastolic pressure.
Kartička 104
Otázka
What do coronary arteries supply?
Odpoveď
The heart muscle itself. Blocked coronary blood flow can deprive myocardium of oxygen.
Kartička 105
Otázka
Which major vessels return systemic blood to the right atrium?
Odpoveď
The superior and inferior venae cavae. The superior vessel drains the upper body; the inferior drains the lower body.
Kartička 106
Otázka
What is the respiratory system's primary gas-exchange function?
Odpoveď
Bringing oxygen into the body and removing carbon dioxide. Ventilation moves air, while diffusion exchanges gases.
Kartička 107
Otázka
What is the airflow sequence from the pharynx to the gas-exchange surfaces?
Odpoveď
Pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli. Each branch conducts air deeper into the lungs.
Kartička 108
Otázka
Where does most gas exchange occur in the lungs?
Odpoveď
Across the alveolar-capillary membrane. Thin walls and a large surface area shorten diffusion distance.
Kartička 109
Otázka
What does the diaphragm do during quiet inhalation?
Odpoveď
It contracts and moves downward. Thoracic volume rises, lung pressure falls, and air flows inward.
Kartička 110
Otázka
Why does oxygen move from alveoli into pulmonary capillaries?
Odpoveď
Its partial pressure is higher in alveolar air than in incoming blood. Oxygen diffuses down that gradient.
Kartička 111
Otázka
What drives quiet exhalation?
Odpoveď
Elastic recoil after inspiratory muscles relax. Thoracic volume falls and pressure pushes air outward.
Kartička 112
Otázka
What is the pleura?
Odpoveď
A double membrane surrounding each lung. A thin fluid layer reduces friction during breathing.
Kartička 113
Otázka
How is most oxygen transported in blood?
Odpoveď
Bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells. Only a small amount dissolves directly in plasma.
Kartička 114
Otázka
Why does carbon dioxide move from pulmonary blood into alveoli?
Odpoveď
Its partial pressure is higher in incoming blood than in alveolar air. It diffuses down that gradient for exhalation.
Kartička 115
Otázka
What helps keep swallowed material out of the airway?
Odpoveď
The epiglottis and coordinated swallowing reflexes. The laryngeal opening is protected as food passes.
Kartička 116
Otázka
How does the conducting airway remove trapped particles?
Odpoveď
Mucus traps them, and cilia move the mucus toward the throat. This is the mucociliary escalator.
Kartička 117
Otázka
In what form is most carbon dioxide transported in blood?
Odpoveď
As bicarbonate ions. Red blood cells help convert carbon dioxide and water into bicarbonate.
Kartička 118
Otázka
Which blood change is a strong normal stimulus to increase breathing?
Odpoveď
A rise in carbon dioxide and the associated fall in pH. Brainstem centers adjust ventilation in response.
Kartička 119
Otázka
Why must alveoli receive both air and blood?
Odpoveď
Gas exchange needs ventilation and perfusion. Air without blood flow, or blood without airflow, cannot exchange gases effectively.
Kartička 120
Otázka
Why does ventilation increase during exercise?
Odpoveď
Active tissues use more oxygen and produce more carbon dioxide. Faster, deeper breathing helps meet that demand.
Kartička 121
Otázka
What are the digestive system's core functions?
Odpoveď
Ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination. Movement and secretion support those processes.
Kartička 122
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What is the alimentary-canal sequence after the mouth?
Odpoveď
Pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus. Food passes through this continuous tube.
Kartička 123
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What is mechanical digestion?
Odpoveď
Physical breakdown and mixing of food without changing its molecules. Chewing and stomach churning are examples.
Kartička 124
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What are two major functions of the stomach?
Odpoveď
It stores and mixes food and begins substantial protein digestion. Acid denatures proteins, converts pepsinogen to pepsin, and provides the low pH pepsin needs.
Kartička 125
Otázka
Where does most nutrient absorption occur?
Odpoveď
The small intestine. Folds, villi, and microvilli create a large absorptive surface.
Kartička 126
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Which nutrient does salivary amylase begin digesting in the mouth?
Odpoveď
Carbohydrates, especially starch. Salivary amylase breaks starch into smaller carbohydrates.
Kartička 127
Otázka
What is chemical digestion?
Odpoveď
Enzymatic breakdown of large food molecules into absorbable units. Chemical bonds are changed during the process.
Kartička 128
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What is peristalsis?
Odpoveď
Wave-like smooth-muscle contractions that move material forward. It occurs throughout much of the digestive tract.
Kartička 129
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What is a main function of the large intestine?
Odpoveď
Absorbing water and electrolytes and forming feces. Resident microbes also process some undigested material.
Kartička 130
Otázka
What digestive product does the liver make?
Odpoveď
Bile. Bile salts help disperse dietary fat into smaller droplets.
Kartička 131
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What does a digestive sphincter do?
Odpoveď
It regulates movement between regions of the digestive tract. Circular muscle contracts to close a passage.
Kartička 132
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What does the pancreas release into the small intestine?
Odpoveď
Digestive enzymes and bicarbonate-rich fluid. Bicarbonate helps neutralize acidic material from the stomach.
Kartička 133
Otázka
How do intestinal villi improve absorption?
Odpoveď
They increase surface area. Each villus contains blood capillaries and a lymphatic lacteal for transported nutrients.
Kartička 134
Otázka
What is the gallbladder's role?
Odpoveď
It stores and concentrates bile. It releases bile into the small intestine when fatty food arrives.
Kartička 135
Otázka
Which macronutrient's absorbed products usually enter intestinal lacteals before reaching the blood?
Odpoveď
Most dietary lipids. Their absorbed products travel through lymph before entering the bloodstream.
Kartička 136
Otázka
Which accessory organs help digestion without food passing through them?
Odpoveď
The teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Teeth and the tongue act mechanically; the other accessory organs add or store digestive secretions.
Kartička 137
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What organs make up the urinary system?
Odpoveď
The kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. Kidneys make urine; the remaining organs transport, store, and release it.
Kartička 138
Otázka
What is a nephron?
Odpoveď
The kidney's functional unit. It filters blood and adjusts the filtrate to form urine.
Kartička 139
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Where does blood filtration begin in a nephron?
Odpoveď
At the renal corpuscle. Pressure pushes water and small solutes from glomerular capillaries into the capsule.
Kartička 140
Otázka
What moves urine from a kidney to the bladder?
Odpoveď
A ureter. Smooth-muscle contractions propel urine along the tube.
Kartička 141
Otázka
What is the urinary bladder's main role?
Odpoveď
Temporary urine storage. Stretch receptors help trigger the urge to urinate as it fills.
Kartička 142
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Which structure carries urine from the bladder out of the body?
Odpoveď
The urethra. It is distinct from the ureters that enter the bladder.
Kartička 143
Otázka
What is tubular reabsorption?
Odpoveď
Movement of useful substances from nephron fluid back into blood. Water, glucose, and ions are common examples.
Kartička 144
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What is the glomerulus?
Odpoveď
A capillary tuft that filters blood in the renal corpuscle. Cells and most large proteins normally remain in circulation.
Kartička 145
Otázka
How does more ADH change urine?
Odpoveď
It makes urine more concentrated and lowers its volume. More water is reabsorbed from the collecting ducts.
Kartička 146
Otázka
What path does filtrate follow after entering the glomerular capsule?
Odpoveď
Proximal convoluted tubule → nephron loop → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct. The collecting duct receives forming urine from multiple nephrons.
Kartička 147
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What is tubular secretion?
Odpoveď
Movement of selected substances from blood into nephron fluid. It helps eliminate wastes and regulate ions and pH.
Kartička 148
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Besides removing waste, what does the urinary system regulate?
Odpoveď
Water, electrolytes, acid-base balance, and blood volume. Kidney hormones also affect blood pressure and red-cell production.
Kartička 149
Otázka
Why does dehydration usually reduce urine volume?
Odpoveď
The body conserves water by increasing renal reabsorption. ADH is an important signal in this response.
Kartička 150
Otázka
Why do the kidneys receive a large blood flow?
Odpoveď
They must continuously filter plasma and regulate its composition. High flow supports waste removal and homeostasis.
Kartička 151
Otázka
What is lymph?
Odpoveď
Interstitial fluid that has entered lymphatic vessels. It eventually returns to the bloodstream.
Kartička 152
Otázka
What is innate immunity?
Odpoveď
Rapid, nonspecific defense present before a particular exposure. Barriers, inflammation, and several immune cells contribute.
Kartička 153
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What is a major function of lymph nodes?
Odpoveď
Filtering lymph and providing sites for immune-cell activation. Swelling can reflect an active immune response.
Kartička 154
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What does the spleen filter?
Odpoveď
Blood. It removes aged blood cells and supports immune responses to blood-borne antigens.
Kartička 155
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What is a key function of B lymphocytes?
Odpoveď
Producing antibody-secreting cells and memory cells. Antibodies bind specific antigens.
Kartička 156
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What distinguishes adaptive immunity?
Odpoveď
It targets specific antigens and develops memory. Later exposure can trigger a faster, stronger response.
Kartička 157
Otázka
Which lymphatic organ is important for T-cell maturation?
Odpoveď
The thymus. It is most active early in life.
Kartička 158
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What is the body's first physical barrier against many pathogens?
Odpoveď
Intact skin and mucous membranes. Their secretions and normal microbes add protection.
Kartička 159
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What is a key function of T lymphocytes?
Odpoveď
Coordinating immune responses or killing infected cells. Different T-cell types perform different roles.
Kartička 160
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What does an antibody bind?
Odpoveď
A specific antigen. Binding can neutralize a target or mark it for other immune defenses.
Kartička 161
Otázka
What is the purpose of inflammation after tissue injury?
Odpoveď
To contain damage, recruit defenses, and begin repair. Redness, heat, swelling, and pain can accompany it.
Kartička 162
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Why is a second adaptive response often faster than the first?
Odpoveď
Memory lymphocytes remain after the first exposure. They respond quickly when the same antigen appears again.
Kartička 163
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What does a phagocyte do?
Odpoveď
It engulfs particles, microbes, or debris. Neutrophils and macrophages are important examples.
Kartička 164
Otázka
How does vaccination support adaptive immunity?
Odpoveď
It safely exposes the immune system to antigen information. This promotes memory without requiring the full disease.
Kartička 165
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Why is lymphatic fluid return important?
Odpoveď
It prevents excess interstitial fluid from accumulating. Lymphatic vessels return fluid and leaked proteins to blood.
Kartička 166
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What structures belong to the integumentary system?
Odpoveď
Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands. Together they form the body's outer covering.
Kartička 167
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What is the epidermis?
Odpoveď
The outer epithelial layer of skin. It is avascular and contains protective keratinized cells.
Kartička 168
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How does sweating cool the body?
Odpoveď
Evaporation removes heat from the skin. Skin blood-flow changes also help regulate heat loss.
Kartička 169
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What is a major role of melanin in skin?
Odpoveď
Absorbing some ultraviolet radiation. It also contributes to skin and hair color.
Kartička 170
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How does skin contribute to sensation?
Odpoveď
Sensory receptors detect touch, pressure, pain, and temperature. Nerves carry that information to the CNS.
Kartička 171
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What is the dermis?
Odpoveď
The connective-tissue layer beneath the epidermis. It contains vessels, nerves, glands, and hair follicles.
Kartička 172
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How does skin support vitamin D production?
Odpoveď
Ultraviolet light starts conversion of a skin molecule into a vitamin D precursor. The liver and kidneys complete activation.
Kartička 173
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Why does a deep skin wound bleed but a shallow epidermal scrape may not?
Odpoveď
Blood vessels are in the dermis, not the epidermis. A wound must reach vascular tissue to damage them.
Kartička 174
Otázka
What is a gamete?
Odpoveď
A haploid reproductive cell. Human sperm and oocytes each carry 23 chromosomes.
Kartička 175
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What are the testes' two main reproductive functions?
Odpoveď
Producing sperm and secreting testosterone. Sperm develop in seminiferous tubules.
Kartička 176
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What tube carries sperm from the epididymis toward the ejaculatory duct?
Odpoveď
The ductus, or vas, deferens. Smooth muscle propels sperm during ejaculation.
Kartička 177
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What is ovulation?
Odpoveď
Release of a secondary oocyte from an ovary. A surge in luteinizing hormone helps trigger it.
Kartička 178
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Where does fertilization usually occur?
Odpoveď
In a uterine tube. The early embryo then travels toward the uterus.
Kartička 179
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What are the ovaries' two main reproductive functions?
Odpoveď
Producing oocytes and secreting sex hormones. Estrogen and progesterone help regulate the reproductive cycle.
Kartička 180
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What is the uterus' main reproductive role?
Odpoveď
Supporting implantation and development of an embryo and fetus. Its muscular wall also contracts during birth.
Kartička 181
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What causes menstruation when pregnancy does not occur?
Odpoveď
Falling ovarian hormones allow the uterine lining to shed. A new cycle then begins.
Kartička 182
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How does a sperm cell's structure support its function?
Odpoveď
Its flagellum provides movement, and its head carries DNA plus enzymes used during fertilization. Mitochondria supply energy in the midpiece.
Kartička 183
Otázka
What is the placenta's exchange role?
Odpoveď
It allows gases, nutrients, and wastes to move between maternal and fetal circulations. Their blood normally does not mix directly.
Kartička 184
Otázka
Why is meiosis necessary for sexual reproduction?
Odpoveď
It halves chromosome number in gametes. Fertilization then restores the diploid number.
Kartička 185
Otázka
How do sex hormones regulate reproductive control pathways?
Odpoveď
They usually feed back on the hypothalamus and pituitary. This adjusts release of hormones that act on the gonads.
Kartička 186
Otázka
What does cell theory state?
Odpoveď
Living things are made of cells, cells are the basic units of life, and cells come from existing cells. These ideas link organism structure with cell division.
Kartička 187
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What is the defining structural feature of a prokaryotic cell?
Odpoveď
It lacks a membrane-bound nucleus. Its DNA occupies a nucleoid region.
Kartička 188
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What is the cell membrane's main role?
Odpoveď
Regulating movement between the cell and its environment. Its phospholipid bilayer is selectively permeable.
Kartička 189
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What is the nucleus' main role?
Odpoveď
Storing most of a eukaryotic cell's DNA. Nuclear pores regulate exchange with the cytoplasm.
Kartička 190
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Where are proteins assembled?
Odpoveď
At ribosomes. Ribosomes may float in cytosol or attach to rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Kartička 191
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What distinguishes a eukaryotic cell from a prokaryotic cell?
Odpoveď
A eukaryotic cell has a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Animals, plants, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes.
Kartička 192
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What is a mitochondrion's main function?
Odpoveď
Producing most cellular ATP through aerobic respiration. Its inner membrane provides a large reaction surface.
Kartička 193
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What does rough endoplasmic reticulum mainly produce?
Odpoveď
Proteins for secretion, membranes, or organelles. Ribosomes on its surface make the proteins.
Kartička 194
Otázka
Which organelle carries out photosynthesis in plants and algae?
Odpoveď
The chloroplast. It converts light energy into chemical energy stored in organic molecules.
Kartička 195
Otázka
What does the Golgi apparatus do?
Odpoveď
It modifies, sorts, and packages cell products. Vesicles carry those products to their destinations.
Kartička 196
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What is a lysosome's role?
Odpoveď
Digesting worn cell parts and engulfed material. Its enzymes work best in an acidic interior.
Kartička 197
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What are major functions of smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
Odpoveď
Lipid synthesis, detoxification, and calcium storage. Its membrane lacks attached ribosomes.
Kartička 198
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What does the cytoskeleton provide?
Odpoveď
Cell shape, internal organization, movement, and transport tracks. It is built from protein filaments.
Kartička 199
Otázka
What is diffusion?
Odpoveď
Net movement from higher to lower concentration. It is passive and continues until dynamic equilibrium is reached.
Kartička 200
Otázka
What happens to an animal cell in a strongly hypotonic solution?
Odpoveď
Water enters and the cell swells. Without a cell wall, it may burst.
Kartička 201
Otázka
What happens during interphase?
Odpoveď
The cell grows, performs normal functions, and copies its DNA. Interphase precedes mitotic division.
Kartička 202
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What is the result of mitosis followed by cytokinesis?
Odpoveď
Two genetically similar daughter cells. Chromosome number is normally preserved.
Kartička 203
Otázka
What is osmosis?
Odpoveď
Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Water moves toward the side with more nonpenetrating solute.
Kartička 204
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What happens to an animal cell in a hypertonic solution?
Odpoveď
Water leaves and the cell shrinks. The external solution has a higher effective solute concentration.
Kartička 205
Otázka
Why are cells generally small?
Odpoveď
A high surface-area-to-volume ratio supports efficient exchange. Volume grows faster than surface area as a cell enlarges.
Kartička 206
Otázka
What is cytokinesis?
Odpoveď
Division of the cytoplasm. It separates one cell into two after nuclear division.
Kartička 207
Otázka
How does active transport differ from passive transport?
Odpoveď
It uses energy to move substances against a gradient. Passive transport moves down a gradient without direct energy input.
Kartička 208
Otázka
What happens to an animal cell in an isotonic solution?
Odpoveď
There is no net water movement. Water still crosses in both directions at equal rates.
Kartička 209
Otázka
Which structures are typical of plant cells but not animal cells?
Odpoveď
A cellulose cell wall, chloroplasts, and a large central vacuole. Both cell types have membranes, nuclei, and mitochondria.
Kartička 210
Otázka
How do cells contribute to a multicellular organism's organization?
Odpoveď
Specialized cells form tissues, tissues form organs, and organs form systems. Division of labor supports complex functions.
Kartička 211
Otázka
What is DNA's primary biological role?
Odpoveď
Storing hereditary information. Its nucleotide sequence contains instructions used to build functional RNA and proteins.
Kartička 212
Otázka
What are the three parts of a DNA nucleotide?
Odpoveď
A deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. Nucleotides link to form each strand.
Kartička 213
Otázka
Which bases pair in double-stranded DNA?
Odpoveď
Adenine with thymine, and cytosine with guanine. Hydrogen bonds hold complementary strands together.
Kartička 214
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How does RNA differ from DNA?
Odpoveď
RNA usually has ribose, uses uracil instead of thymine, and is usually single-stranded. Several RNA types help express genes.
Kartička 215
Otázka
What is a gene?
Odpoveď
A DNA sequence that contributes to a functional product. The product may be a protein or a functional RNA.
Kartička 216
Otázka
What is a chromosome?
Odpoveď
A long DNA molecule packaged with proteins. It contains many genes and other sequences.
Kartička 217
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What is DNA replication?
Odpoveď
Copying DNA before cell division. Each new DNA molecule contains one old strand and one newly made strand.
Kartička 218
Otázka
What is the usual flow of information from a protein-coding gene?
Odpoveď
DNA to RNA to protein. Transcription makes RNA; translation builds the polypeptide.
Kartička 219
Otázka
What happens during transcription?
Odpoveď
RNA is synthesized from a DNA template. For a protein-coding gene, that RNA functions as or is processed into messenger RNA.
Kartička 220
Otázka
What does messenger RNA carry?
Odpoveď
A copy of coding information from DNA to a ribosome. Its codons specify the amino-acid sequence.
Kartička 221
Otázka
What is a codon?
Odpoveď
A three-nucleotide sequence in mRNA. Most codons specify an amino acid; some signal start or stop.
Kartička 222
Otázka
What is the usual role of the AUG codon?
Odpoveď
It starts translation and specifies methionine. The ribosome uses it to establish the reading frame.
Kartička 223
Otázka
What happens during translation?
Odpoveď
A ribosome reads mRNA and joins amino acids into a polypeptide. Transfer RNAs match codons with amino acids.
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Kartička 224
Otázka
What is transfer RNA's role in protein synthesis?
Odpoveď
It carries an amino acid and matches its anticodon to an mRNA codon. This places the correct amino acid in sequence.
Kartička 225
Otázka
What is an anticodon?
Odpoveď
A three-base sequence on tRNA complementary to an mRNA codon. Pairing helps decode the message.
Kartička 226
Otázka
What is a mutation?
Odpoveď
A change in a DNA sequence. Its effect may be harmful, neutral, or beneficial depending on location and context.
Kartička 227
Otázka
Why can a one-base insertion in a coding sequence have a large effect?
Odpoveď
It can shift the reading frame. Every downstream codon may change until a stop signal appears.
Kartička 228
Otázka
Why can changing one amino acid alter a protein's function?
Odpoveď
Amino-acid sequence helps determine folding and shape. Shape controls many protein interactions.
Kartička 229
Otázka
What is ribosomal RNA's role in protein synthesis?
Odpoveď
It forms the structural and catalytic core of ribosomes. Ribosomal RNA helps align translation components and catalyzes peptide-bond formation.
Kartička 230
Otázka
Why can different cell types contain the same DNA but perform different jobs?
Odpoveď
They express different sets of genes. Different proteins give cells different structures and functions.
Kartička 231
Otázka
Which mutation can be passed to offspring?
Odpoveď
A mutation present in a gamete-forming lineage. A mutation limited to ordinary body cells is not inherited through reproduction.
Kartička 232
Otázka
What is an allele?
Odpoveď
An alternative version of a gene. Diploid individuals usually carry two alleles for each autosomal gene.
Kartička 233
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What is genotype?
Odpoveď
An organism's allele combination for a gene or set of genes. Genotype contributes to phenotype.
Kartička 234
Otázka
What does homozygous mean?
Odpoveď
Having two identical alleles for a gene. Examples include AA and aa.
Kartička 235
Otázka
What makes an allele dominant in a simple Mendelian trait?
Odpoveď
One copy is enough for its phenotype to appear in a heterozygote. Dominant does not mean common or beneficial.
Kartička 236
Otázka
What does Mendel's law of segregation describe?
Odpoveď
The two alleles for a gene separate during gamete formation. Each gamete receives one allele.
Kartička 237
Otázka
What is phenotype?
Odpoveď
An observable trait or characteristic. It can reflect genotype, environment, and their interaction.
Kartička 238
Otázka
What does heterozygous mean?
Odpoveď
Having two different alleles for a gene. An example is Aa.
Kartička 239
Otázka
When does a recessive phenotype usually appear in a simple autosomal trait?
Odpoveď
When both alleles are recessive. A heterozygote carries the allele without showing that phenotype.
Kartička 240
Otázka
When does independent assortment apply most clearly?
Odpoveď
When genes are on different chromosomes or far apart on the same chromosome. Their allele pairs enter gametes independently.
Kartička 241
Otázka
What does a Punnett square predict?
Odpoveď
Expected offspring genotype probabilities from specified parental gametes. It does not guarantee outcomes in a small family.
Kartička 242
Otázka
For Aa × Aa, what is the chance of an aa offspring?
Odpoveď
One fourth, or 25%. The genotype ratio is expected to be 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa.
Kartička 243
Otázka
For Aa × Aa with complete dominance, what phenotypic ratio is expected?
Odpoveď
Three dominant-phenotype offspring to one recessive-phenotype offspring. This is a probability across many offspring.
Kartička 244
Otázka
How can a test cross reveal the genotype behind a dominant phenotype?
Odpoveď
Cross the individual with a homozygous recessive partner. Recessive offspring show that the unknown parent carried a recessive allele.
Kartička 245
Otázka
What happens in incomplete dominance?
Odpoveď
A heterozygote has an intermediate phenotype. Neither allele fully masks the other.
Kartička 246
Otázka
How is the probability of two independent genetic events both occurring found?
Odpoveď
Multiply their individual probabilities. This is the product rule.
Kartička 247
Otázka
What does a pedigree show?
Odpoveď
How a trait appears across generations of a family. Its pattern can suggest a mode of inheritance.
Kartička 248
Otázka
Why can two parents have offspring ratios that differ from a Punnett-square expectation?
Odpoveď
Each fertilization is a chance event. Expected ratios become more apparent with larger numbers of offspring.
Kartička 249
Otázka
What happens in codominance?
Odpoveď
Both alleles are distinctly expressed in a heterozygote. The AB blood type is a common example.
Kartička 250
Otázka
What are major roles of carbohydrates?
Odpoveď
Providing quick energy, storing energy, and forming some structures. Monosaccharides are their basic building blocks.
Kartička 251
Otázka
What is a monomer?
Odpoveď
A small building block that can join with others to form a larger molecule. Glucose, amino acids, and nucleotides are examples in different classes.
Kartička 252
Otázka
What happens in a dehydration-synthesis reaction?
Odpoveď
Monomers join while water is removed. The reaction builds a larger biological molecule.
Kartička 253
Otázka
What does an enzyme do?
Odpoveď
It lowers activation energy and speeds a reaction without being consumed. Its shape helps it bind specific substrates.
Kartička 254
Otázka
What are major roles of lipids?
Odpoveď
Long-term energy storage, membranes, insulation, and signaling. Lipids are mostly nonpolar and do not mix well with water.
Kartička 255
Otázka
What does it mean for a protein to denature?
Odpoveď
Its normal shape is disrupted. Heat, extreme pH, or chemicals can reduce its function.
Kartička 256
Otázka
What happens during hydrolysis?
Odpoveď
Water is used to split a larger molecule into smaller units. Digestion often uses hydrolysis reactions.
Kartička 257
Otázka
Why do phospholipids form bilayers in water?
Odpoveď
Their hydrophilic heads interact with water while hydrophobic tails turn inward. This arrangement forms cell-membrane structure.
Kartička 258
Otázka
What are proteins built from?
Odpoveď
Amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Their folded shapes support enzymes, transport, signaling, structure, and movement.
Kartička 259
Otázka
How do starch and glycogen compare?
Odpoveď
Both store glucose; plants use starch and animals use glycogen. Their branching patterns differ.
Kartička 260
Otázka
How do saturated and unsaturated fatty acids differ?
Odpoveď
Saturated fatty acids lack carbon-carbon double bonds; unsaturated ones have one or more. Double bonds often introduce bends.
Kartička 261
Otázka
What immediate energy-carrying molecule powers many cell processes?
Odpoveď
ATP. Energy released from nutrients can be transferred into ATP's phosphate bonds.
Kartička 262
Otázka
What are nucleic acids built from?
Odpoveď
Nucleotides. DNA stores hereditary information, while RNA performs several roles in gene expression.
Kartička 263
Otázka
Which elements are common in all four major biological macromolecule classes?
Odpoveď
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Nitrogen and phosphorus occur prominently in some classes.
Kartička 264
Otázka
Why is three-dimensional shape important for macromolecules?
Odpoveď
Shape determines many interactions and functions. A changed shape can prevent a molecule from binding its target.
Kartička 265
Otázka
What are triglycerides built from?
Odpoveď
One glycerol molecule and three fatty acids. They join through ester bonds to form a common energy-storage lipid.
Kartička 266
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What is a pathogen?
Odpoveď
An agent capable of causing disease. Not every microorganism is pathogenic.
Kartička 267
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What type of cell is a bacterium?
Odpoveď
A prokaryotic cell. Bacteria usually reproduce by binary fission.
Kartička 268
Otázka
What cell type do fungi have?
Odpoveď
Eukaryotic cells. Some fungi are unicellular yeasts, while others form multicellular filaments.
Kartička 269
Otázka
What does disease transmission describe?
Odpoveď
How an infectious agent moves to a susceptible host. Routes include contact, droplets, airborne spread, food, water, and vectors.
Kartička 270
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What is a biological vector?
Odpoveď
An organism that becomes infected with a pathogen and transmits it between hosts. The pathogen survives or reproduces inside the vector, unlike transport by a mechanical carrier.
Kartička 271
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Why are viruses dependent on host cells?
Odpoveď
They lack the complete machinery for reproduction and metabolism. They use host components to make new virus particles.
Kartička 272
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What is a protist?
Odpoveď
A diverse eukaryote that is not classified as an animal, plant, or fungus. Some protists cause disease, while many do not.
Kartička 273
Otázka
Why do antibiotics not treat viral infections?
Odpoveď
They target bacterial structures or processes that viruses lack. Antiviral drugs use different targets.
Kartička 274
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How can normal microbiota protect a host?
Odpoveď
They occupy space and use resources that pathogens might otherwise exploit. Some also support digestion or immune development.
Kartička 275
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How does sterilization differ from disinfection?
Odpoveď
Sterilization destroys or removes all microbial life, including resistant forms; disinfection reduces pathogens on objects. The required method depends on use.
Kartička 276
Otázka
How do infection and disease differ?
Odpoveď
Infection means an agent is established in a host; disease means normal function is impaired and signs or symptoms occur. Infection may be asymptomatic.
Kartička 277
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How can breaking a transmission route reduce infectious disease?
Odpoveď
It interrupts the chain connecting a source with a susceptible host. Hand hygiene, clean water, ventilation, and vector control target different links.
Kartička 278
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What is an atom?
Odpoveď
The smallest unit of an element that retains that element's chemical identity. Atoms contain a nucleus surrounded by electrons.
Kartička 279
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What charge and location does an electron have?
Odpoveď
Negative charge in the electron cloud around the nucleus. Electrons drive most chemical bonding.
Kartička 280
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Why are valence electrons important?
Odpoveď
They participate most directly in bonding and reactions. Their arrangement helps predict chemical behavior.
Kartička 281
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What do elements in the same periodic-table group often share?
Odpoveď
Similar valence-electron patterns and chemical properties. A group is a vertical column.
Kartička 282
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What is an ion?
Odpoveď
An atom or group of atoms with a net electric charge. Its total numbers of protons and electrons are unequal.
Kartička 283
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What charge and location does a proton have?
Odpoveď
Positive charge in the nucleus. The number of protons determines the element.
Kartička 284
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What does an element's atomic number equal?
Odpoveď
Its number of protons. A neutral atom has the same number of electrons.
Kartička 285
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How does a neutral atom form a cation?
Odpoveď
By losing one or more electrons. It has more protons than electrons and a positive charge.
Kartička 286
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An atom has 8 protons. How many electrons does it have if it is neutral?
Odpoveď
Eight electrons. Neutral atoms have equal positive and negative charges.
Kartička 287
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What charge and location does a neutron have?
Odpoveď
No electric charge, in the nucleus. Neutron number can vary among isotopes of an element.
Kartička 288
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What does mass number equal?
Odpoveď
Protons plus neutrons in one atom. It is a whole number for a specific isotope.
Kartička 289
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How does a neutral atom form an anion?
Odpoveď
By gaining one or more electrons. It has more electrons than protons and a negative charge.
Kartička 290
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What does a period represent on the periodic table?
Odpoveď
A horizontal row. Moving across a period changes proton number one element at a time.
Kartička 291
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What are isotopes?
Odpoveď
Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. They have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Kartička 292
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What is matter?
Odpoveď
Anything that has mass and occupies space. Solids, liquids, gases, and plasma are forms of matter.
Kartička 293
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What distinguishes a solid from a liquid or gas?
Odpoveď
A solid has a definite shape and volume. Its particles vibrate around relatively fixed positions.
Kartička 294
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What is a physical change?
Odpoveď
A change in form or state without changing chemical identity. Melting and cutting are examples.
Kartička 295
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What is a physical property?
Odpoveď
A characteristic observed without changing a substance's identity. Density, color, and melting point are examples.
Kartička 296
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How does an element differ from a compound?
Odpoveď
An element contains one kind of atom; a compound contains elements chemically combined in fixed proportions. Chemical methods can separate a compound into simpler substances.
Kartička 297
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What distinguishes a liquid?
Odpoveď
It has a definite volume but takes the shape of its container. Its particles remain close while moving past one another.
Kartička 298
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What is a chemical change?
Odpoveď
A process that forms one or more substances with new chemical identities. Bond rearrangement occurs.
Kartička 299
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What is a chemical property?
Odpoveď
A substance's ability to undergo a particular chemical change. Flammability and reactivity with acid are examples.
Kartička 300
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Which phase changes connect solids and liquids?
Odpoveď
Melting changes a solid to a liquid; freezing changes a liquid to a solid. These are opposite physical changes.
Kartička 301
Otázka
How does a pure substance differ from a mixture?
Odpoveď
A pure substance has a fixed composition and is an element or compound; a mixture has variable composition and physically combined components. Mixture components retain their identities.
Kartička 302
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What distinguishes a gas?
Odpoveď
It has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume. It expands to fill its container.
Kartička 303
Otázka
What is the formula for density?
Odpoveď
Density = mass ÷ volume. Density is an intensive property.
Kartička 304
Otázka
Which phase changes connect liquids and gases?
Odpoveď
Vaporization changes a liquid to a gas; condensation changes a gas to a liquid. Evaporation is vaporization at a liquid's surface.
Kartička 305
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What is a mixture?
Odpoveď
Two or more substances physically combined in variable proportions. Its components retain their chemical identities.
Kartička 306
Otázka
How do intensive and extensive properties differ?
Odpoveď
Intensive properties do not depend on sample amount; extensive properties do. Density and temperature are intensive, while mass and volume are extensive.
Kartička 307
Otázka
A 20 g sample occupies 5 mL. What is its density?
Odpoveď
4 g/mL. Divide 20 g by 5 mL.
Kartička 308
Otázka
Which phase changes connect solids and gases directly?
Odpoveď
Sublimation changes a solid to a gas; deposition changes a gas to a solid. Neither transition passes through the liquid state.
Kartička 309
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How do homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures differ?
Odpoveď
A homogeneous mixture is uniform throughout; a heterogeneous mixture is not. A solution is homogeneous.
Kartička 310
Otázka
Where are reactants and products written in a chemical equation?
Odpoveď
Reactants are on the left; products are on the right. The arrow shows the direction represented.
Kartička 311
Otázka
Why must a chemical equation be balanced?
Odpoveď
Atoms are conserved in ordinary chemical reactions. Each element must have the same atom count on both sides.
Kartička 312
Otázka
What does a coefficient in a chemical equation change?
Odpoveď
The number of whole particles or moles represented. It multiplies every atom in the following formula.
Kartička 313
Otázka
Why should subscripts not be changed when balancing an equation?
Odpoveď
Changing a subscript changes the substance's identity. Balancing changes coefficients only.
Kartička 314
Otázka
What coefficients balance H₂ + O₂ → H₂O?
Odpoveď
2, 1, 2: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O. Both sides then contain four hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms.
Kartička 315
Otázka
What pattern defines a synthesis reaction?
Odpoveď
Two or more reactants form a more complex product. A general pattern is A + B → AB.
Kartička 316
Otázka
What are typical products when a hydrocarbon burns completely in oxygen?
Odpoveď
Carbon dioxide and water. Incomplete combustion can produce carbon monoxide or carbon.
Kartička 317
Otázka
What is the net ionic equation for a typical strong acid–strong base neutralization?
Odpoveď
H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l). The remaining ions are spectators and do not appear in the net ionic equation.
Kartička 318
Otázka
What is a precipitate?
Odpoveď
An insoluble solid that forms from substances in solution. Its appearance can signal a chemical reaction.
Kartička 319
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What pattern defines a decomposition reaction?
Odpoveď
One compound breaks into simpler products. A general pattern is AB → A + B.
Kartička 320
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What is an exothermic reaction?
Odpoveď
A reaction that releases heat to the surroundings. The surroundings often warm.
Kartička 321
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What occurs in an oxidation-reduction reaction?
Odpoveď
Electrons transfer or atoms change oxidation state. Oxidation is electron loss; reduction is electron gain.
Kartička 322
Otázka
What is activation energy?
Odpoveď
The minimum energy barrier reactants must overcome to react. Catalysts lower this barrier.
Kartička 323
Otázka
Which observations can provide evidence of a chemical reaction?
Odpoveď
Gas formation, a precipitate, sustained color change, light, or temperature change. No single sign proves a reaction without context.
Kartička 324
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What is an endothermic reaction?
Odpoveď
A reaction that absorbs heat from the surroundings. The surroundings may cool.
Kartička 325
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Why does raising temperature usually speed a reaction?
Odpoveď
Particles collide more often and with greater energy. More collisions overcome activation energy.
Kartička 326
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Why can higher reactant concentration increase reaction rate?
Odpoveď
More reactant particles occupy a given volume. This raises collision frequency.
Kartička 327
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Why does powdered solid often react faster than one large piece?
Odpoveď
Powder exposes more surface area. More particles are available for collisions.
Kartička 328
Otázka
How does a catalyst speed a reaction?
Odpoveď
It provides a pathway with lower activation energy. The catalyst is regenerated rather than consumed overall.
Kartička 329
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How can increasing pressure affect a reaction between gases?
Odpoveď
It can increase rate by bringing gas particles closer together. Collision frequency rises when volume falls.
Kartička 330
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What does a reaction inhibitor do?
Odpoveď
It slows a reaction. It may block a pathway, interfere with a catalyst, or remove reactive intermediates.
Kartička 331
Otázka
Why can very high temperature slow an enzyme-catalyzed reaction?
Odpoveď
The enzyme can denature and lose its active shape. Moderate warming helps only within the enzyme's stable range.
Kartička 332
Otázka
What is dynamic equilibrium?
Odpoveď
Forward and reverse reactions continue at equal rates. Concentrations remain constant even though particles still react.
Kartička 333
Otázka
Does a catalyst change the final equilibrium amounts?
Odpoveď
No. It speeds forward and reverse reactions, so equilibrium is reached sooner without changing its position.
Kartička 334
Otázka
At equilibrium, what usually happens when the concentration of a dissolved or gaseous reactant increases?
Odpoveď
The system shifts toward consuming some added reactant. It forms more product until a new equilibrium is reached.
Kartička 335
Otázka
What is a solution?
Odpoveď
A homogeneous mixture. Its components are uniformly distributed at the molecular or ionic level.
Kartička 336
Otázka
How do solute and solvent differ?
Odpoveď
The solute is dissolved; the solvent is the dissolving medium. The solvent is often present in greater amount.
Kartička 337
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What does aqueous mean in chemistry?
Odpoveď
Dissolved in water. The symbol (aq) marks an aqueous species in an equation.
Kartička 338
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What does concentration describe?
Odpoveď
The amount of solute in a given amount of solution or solvent. Different units express it in different ways.
Kartička 339
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What is molarity?
Odpoveď
Moles of solute per liter of solution. Its unit is mol/L, written M.
Kartička 340
Otázka
What is the molarity of 0.50 mol solute in 2.0 L of solution?
Odpoveď
0.25 M. Divide 0.50 mol by 2.0 L.
Kartička 341
Otázka
What stays constant when water is added to dilute a solution without reaction?
Odpoveď
The moles of solute. Volume increases and concentration decreases.
Kartička 342
Otázka
Which equation relates concentration and volume before and after a dilution?
Odpoveď
M₁V₁ = M₂V₂. It follows from conserving the amount of solute.
Kartička 343
Otázka
What is solubility?
Odpoveď
The maximum concentration of a solute that can be achieved in a solution at equilibrium under specified conditions. Temperature and the substances involved matter.
Kartička 344
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What is a saturated solution?
Odpoveď
A solution holding the maximum dissolved solute at those conditions. Extra solute remains undissolved at equilibrium.
Kartička 345
Otázka
What is an electrolyte?
Odpoveď
A substance that produces mobile ions in solution and conducts electricity. Soluble ionic compounds are common examples.
Kartička 346
Otázka
What does 'like dissolves like' predict?
Odpoveď
Substances with similar polarity tend to mix well. Polar solvents favor polar or ionic solutes; nonpolar solvents favor nonpolar solutes.
Kartička 347
Otázka
Does heating always increase solubility?
Odpoveď
No. Many solids become more soluble in water, but gases usually become less soluble as temperature rises.
Kartička 348
Otázka
What is an unsaturated solution?
Odpoveď
A solution that can dissolve more solute at the stated conditions. It is below the solubility limit.
Kartička 349
Otázka
What does a Brønsted-Lowry acid donate?
Odpoveď
A proton, H⁺. In water, acid behavior increases hydronium-ion concentration.
Kartička 350
Otázka
What does pH describe?
Odpoveď
The hydronium-ion concentration on a logarithmic scale. Lower pH means higher hydronium concentration.
Kartička 351
Otázka
At 25 °C, what pH range is acidic?
Odpoveď
Below 7. A neutral aqueous solution is pH 7 at this temperature.
Kartička 352
Otázka
How does hydronium concentration change when pH drops by 1 unit?
Odpoveď
It increases tenfold. The pH scale is logarithmic.
Kartička 353
Otázka
What does a Brønsted-Lowry base accept?
Odpoveď
A proton, H⁺. Many bases in water also increase hydroxide-ion concentration.
Kartička 354
Otázka
At 25 °C, what is the relationship between pH and pOH?
Odpoveď
pH + pOH = 14. pOH is the negative base-10 logarithm of hydroxide-ion concentration; this relation applies to aqueous solutions at 25 °C.
Kartička 355
Otázka
At 25 °C, what pH range is basic?
Odpoveď
Above 7. Basic solutions have less hydronium and more hydroxide than neutral water.
Kartička 356
Otázka
What are typical products of a strong acid reacting with a strong base?
Odpoveď
Water and an ionic salt. Hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions combine to form water.
Kartička 357
Otázka
What does strong mean for an acid or base?
Odpoveď
It produces its characteristic ions essentially completely in water. Strong acids ionize; soluble ionic strong bases dissociate. Strength is separate from concentration.
Kartička 358
Otázka
What does a buffer do?
Odpoveď
It resists large pH changes when small amounts of acid or base are added. A weak conjugate acid-base pair neutralizes much of the added H₃O⁺ or OH⁻.
Kartička 359
Otázka
How does an acid-base indicator work?
Odpoveď
Its color depends on pH. The change occurs over a characteristic pH range.
Kartička 360
Otázka
A solution has pH 9 at 25 °C. What is its pOH?
Odpoveď
5. Subtract the pH from 14.
Kartička 361
Otázka
How does a concentrated weak acid differ from a dilute strong acid?
Odpoveď
Concentration tells how much acid is present; strength tells how completely it ionizes. A concentrated weak acid contains more partially ionizing acid, while a dilute strong acid contains less acid that ionizes essentially completely. Either can have the lower pH.
Kartička 362
Otázka
What is the SI base unit of length?
Odpoveď
The meter (m). Centimeters and millimeters are decimal subdivisions of a meter.
Kartička 363
Otázka
Which tool directly measures mass in a laboratory?
Odpoveď
A balance. A spring scale measures force, often reported as weight.
Kartička 364
Otázka
What is the SI base unit of mass?
Odpoveď
The kilogram (kg). Laboratory mass is also commonly reported in grams.
Kartička 365
Otázka
A student needs to measure about 35 mL of liquid and can choose a beaker or graduated cylinder. Which should they use?
Odpoveď
A graduated cylinder. Read the scale at eye level.
Kartička 366
Otázka
What is the SI base unit of time?
Odpoveď
The second (s). Minutes and hours are accepted for many everyday uses.
Kartička 367
Otázka
Where should the volume of a clear water-based liquid be read in a graduated cylinder?
Odpoveď
At the bottom of the meniscus. Keep your eye level with the liquid surface.
Kartička 368
Otázka
What is the SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature?
Odpoveď
The kelvin (K). Degrees Celsius are widely used for laboratory and body temperatures.
Kartička 369
Otázka
Which tool measures temperature?
Odpoveď
A thermometer. Its range and resolution should match the task.
Kartička 370
Otázka
What factor does the metric prefix kilo- represent?
Odpoveď
One thousand, or 10³. One kilometer equals 1,000 meters.
Kartička 371
Otázka
A ruler's smallest marking is 1 mm. To what place should a careful analog reading usually be estimated?
Odpoveď
One place beyond the smallest marking, when the scale allows it. The final digit is uncertain.
Kartička 372
Otázka
What is measurement accuracy?
Odpoveď
Closeness to an accepted or true value. A systematic error can make precise measurements inaccurate.
Kartička 373
Otázka
How do mass and weight differ?
Odpoveď
Mass is the amount of matter; weight is gravitational force on that mass. Mass stays constant when gravity changes, but weight does not.
Kartička 374
Otázka
What factor does the metric prefix milli- represent?
Odpoveď
One thousandth, or 10⁻³. One milliliter is 0.001 liter.
Kartička 375
Otázka
How can the volume of an irregular solid be measured with water?
Odpoveď
Use water displacement. Subtract the initial water volume from the final volume after submerging the object.
Kartička 376
Otázka
What is measurement precision?
Odpoveď
Closeness of repeated measurements to one another. Precise results can still be consistently wrong.
Kartička 377
Otázka
What is an instrument's resolution?
Odpoveď
The smallest change it can meaningfully display or distinguish. Higher resolution does not automatically guarantee accuracy.
Kartička 378
Otázka
How many centimeters are in 2.5 meters?
Odpoveď
2.5 × 10² cm (250 cm). Multiply meters by the exact conversion factor 100 cm/m.
Kartička 379
Otázka
Why must a numerical measurement include a unit?
Odpoveď
The unit identifies the quantity's scale. A bare number is ambiguous and cannot be compared reliably.
Kartička 380
Otázka
What is a scientific observation?
Odpoveď
Information recorded with senses or instruments. It should be distinguished from an explanation of what was observed.
Kartička 381
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What makes a hypothesis scientifically useful?
Odpoveď
It is testable and falsifiable. Evidence must be able to count against it.
Kartička 382
Otázka
What is a scientific theory?
Odpoveď
A broad, well-supported explanation of natural phenomena. It is not a casual guess and can be revised with new evidence.
Kartička 383
Otázka
Which claim is falsifiable: 'No possible observation could count against this treatment's effectiveness' or 'This treatment lowers mean temperature within one hour'?
Odpoveď
The claim that the treatment lowers mean temperature within one hour. An observation could count against it, so evidence can test it.
Kartička 384
Otázka
What is an inference?
Odpoveď
A logical interpretation based on observations and prior knowledge. It goes beyond the raw measurement.
Kartička 385
Otázka
How does a prediction relate to a hypothesis?
Odpoveď
It states an expected result if the hypothesis is correct. Experiments compare observed results with that expectation.
Kartička 386
Otázka
How does a scientific law differ from a scientific theory?
Odpoveď
A law describes a consistent pattern; a theory explains how or why patterns occur. One does not mature into the other.
Kartička 387
Otázka
What does reliability mean for a measurement or procedure?
Odpoveď
It produces consistent results under the same conditions. Repetition helps assess reliability.
Kartička 388
Otázka
What does a correlation show?
Odpoveď
Two variables change together in a patterned way. Correlation alone does not establish that one causes the other.
Kartička 389
Otázka
What is bias in scientific work?
Odpoveď
A systematic influence that pushes observations, selection, or interpretation in one direction. Good design tries to prevent or measure it.
Kartička 390
Otázka
What is the purpose of scientific peer review?
Odpoveď
Independent experts evaluate methods, reasoning, and reporting before publication. It improves scrutiny but does not guarantee truth.
Kartička 391
Otázka
What does validity ask about a study or measurement?
Odpoveď
Whether it measures or tests what it claims to measure or test. Consistency alone does not ensure validity.
Kartička 392
Otázka
What evidence most strengthens a causal claim?
Odpoveď
A well-controlled experiment that manipulates the suspected cause. Random assignment reduces confounding, while independent replication tests whether the result holds with new data.
Kartička 393
Otázka
What is a primary scientific source?
Odpoveď
A report of original methods, data, and results. A review article synthesizes many primary studies.
Kartička 394
Otázka
How should an unexpected outlier be handled?
Odpoveď
Investigate and report it rather than deleting it automatically. Exclusion needs a documented scientific reason.
Kartička 395
Otázka
What is a confounding variable?
Odpoveď
An outside factor related to both the suspected cause and the outcome. It can create a misleading association.
Kartička 396
Otázka
Why should a sample represent the population of interest?
Odpoveď
Results generalize poorly when important groups are missing or overrepresented. Sampling method matters as much as size.
Kartička 397
Otázka
What is a scientific model?
Odpoveď
A simplified representation used to explain or predict a system. A model is useful within its assumptions and limits.
Kartička 398
Otázka
Why should measurements report uncertainty or reasonable precision?
Odpoveď
Every measurement has limits. Reporting more digits than the method supports creates false precision.
Kartička 399
Otázka
If results match a prediction once, what is the safest conclusion?
Odpoveď
The results support the hypothesis under those conditions. One result does not prove the hypothesis in every setting.
Kartička 400
Otázka
What is a direct relationship between two variables?
Odpoveď
As one increases, the other tends to increase; as one decreases, the other tends to decrease. The relationship need not be perfectly linear.
Kartička 401
Otázka
Which variable is usually placed on the x-axis of an experimental graph?
Odpoveď
The independent variable. It is the factor selected or changed by the investigator.
Kartička 402
Otázka
What does the slope of a straight-line graph represent?
Odpoveď
Change in y divided by change in x. It is the response rate per unit change in the other variable.
Kartička 403
Otázka
A line rises 12 units in y while x rises 3 units. What is its slope?
Odpoveď
4 units of y per unit of x. Divide 12 by 3.
Kartička 404
Otázka
What is an inverse relationship?
Odpoveď
As one variable increases, the other tends to decrease. Their product is constant only in a strictly inverse proportion.
Kartička 405
Otázka
Which variable is usually placed on the y-axis of an experimental graph?
Odpoveď
The dependent variable. It is the measured response.
Kartička 406
Otázka
What does a plateau on a response graph indicate?
Odpoveď
The measured response has stopped changing much despite further x increases. A limiting factor may have been reached.
Kartička 407
Otázka
What is interpolation?
Odpoveď
Estimating a value within the range of measured data. It is generally safer than extrapolating beyond that range.
Kartička 408
Otázka
What pattern suggests no relationship between two plotted variables?
Odpoveď
The response shows no consistent change as the other variable changes. Points may scatter without a trend.
Kartička 409
Otázka
Before comparing values in a data table, what should you check?
Odpoveď
Headings, units, and conditions. Numbers from different measures or scales cannot be compared directly.
Kartička 410
Otázka
If 3 samples require 12 mL total, how much is needed for 5 equal samples?
Odpoveď
20 mL. The rate is 4 mL per sample, so multiply by 5.
Kartička 411
Otázka
How is the arithmetic mean calculated?
Odpoveď
Add all values and divide by the number of values. A large outlier can shift the mean.
Kartička 412
Otázka
Why is extrapolation uncertain?
Odpoveď
It assumes the observed trend continues outside measured conditions. The relationship may change beyond the data range.
Kartička 413
Otázka
A culture grows from 20 to 50 cells in 6 hours. What is the average growth rate?
Odpoveď
5 cells per hour. The change is 30 cells divided by 6 hours.
Kartička 414
Otázka
A measurement rises from 40 to 50. What is the percent increase?
Odpoveď
25%. The increase is 10, and 10 ÷ 40 × 100 = 25%.
Kartička 415
Otázka
When can the median describe a typical value better than the mean?
Odpoveď
When data are skewed or contain strong outliers. In an ordered set, the median is the middle value for an odd count and the mean of the two middle values for an even count.
Kartička 416
Otázka
How do quantitative and qualitative data differ?
Odpoveď
Quantitative data are numerical; qualitative data describe categories or qualities. Both can answer scientific questions.
Kartička 417
Otázka
A response is 2 at dose 1, 4 at dose 2, and 8 at dose 4. If the relationship is linear, what response is predicted at dose 3?
Odpoveď
6. The observed rate is 2 response units per dose unit, so interpolation at dose 3 gives 6.
Kartička 418
Otázka
How can a graph reveal a nonlinear relationship?
Odpoveď
The points follow a curve rather than a straight line. The rate of change varies across the x-range.
Kartička 419
Otázka
What is the range of a data set?
Odpoveď
Maximum minus minimum. It describes total spread but ignores the distribution between the endpoints.
Kartička 420
Otázka
What makes a scientific research question testable?
Odpoveď
It identifies measurable variables or observable outcomes. The needed data must be obtainable.
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In an experiment, what is the independent variable?
Odpoveď
The factor deliberately changed or assigned by the investigator. In a simple one-factor experiment, changing one independent variable helps isolate its effect.
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What should a hypothesis connect?
Odpoveď
A proposed explanation with a measurable outcome. It should lead to a prediction that evidence can challenge.
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What is a controlled variable, or constant?
Odpoveď
A condition kept the same across groups. Holding it constant prevents it from explaining outcome differences.
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What is the purpose of a control group?
Odpoveď
It provides a comparison without the experimental treatment. Differences can then be attributed more confidently to the treatment.
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In an experiment, what is the dependent variable?
Odpoveď
The measured response. It may change because of the independent variable.
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What form can a useful experimental prediction take?
Odpoveď
If the independent variable changes in a stated way, then the dependent variable should respond in a stated way. The reason links it to the hypothesis.
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What does a positive control demonstrate?
Odpoveď
That the setup can produce a known response. If it fails, the test system may be defective.
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Why randomly assign subjects to experimental groups?
Odpoveď
To distribute known and unknown differences more evenly. This reduces selection bias and confounding.
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How can blinding reduce bias?
Odpoveď
It keeps participants, observers, or both unaware of treatment assignments. Expectations are less likely to affect behavior or measurement.
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What is a placebo?
Odpoveď
An inactive treatment designed to resemble the experimental treatment. It helps separate treatment effects from expectation effects.
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What does a negative control demonstrate?
Odpoveď
What happens when the tested cause is absent. An unexpected response may reveal contamination or another source.
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Why does a larger sample often improve a study?
Odpoveď
It reduces the influence of chance variation and supports more stable estimates. It cannot repair a biased sampling method.
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Why repeat trials within an experiment?
Odpoveď
To estimate variability and check consistency. One unusual trial then has less influence.
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Why must an experimental procedure be detailed and standardized?
Odpoveď
So groups are treated consistently and others can reproduce the work. Uncontrolled procedural differences create alternative explanations.
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Why calibrate a measuring instrument before collecting data?
Odpoveď
To compare its readings with a known standard and reduce systematic error. Calibration improves confidence in accuracy.
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What is an operational definition?
Odpoveď
A precise statement of how a variable is measured or manipulated. It turns an abstract concept into a repeatable procedure.
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How does independent replication differ from repeated trials?
Odpoveď
Independent replication repeats a study with independently collected data, often by a different investigator; repeated trials rerun measurements within the original experiment. Replication tests consistency across separate studies.
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Why should raw data be recorded before interpretation?
Odpoveď
It preserves the observations separately from conclusions. Others can check calculations and reasoning.
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What should a scientific conclusion do?
Odpoveď
Answer the research question using the data and acknowledge limits. It should not claim more than the design supports.
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What should happen when data do not support a hypothesis?
Odpoveď
Revise or reject the hypothesis and consider new tests. Data should not be altered to preserve the original idea.
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What is a study limitation?
Odpoveď
A feature that restricts interpretation or generalization. Small samples, short duration, and imperfect measurements are examples.
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Why are ethics part of experimental design?
Odpoveď
Research must protect participants, organisms, and communities while balancing risks and benefits. Consent and humane treatment are key examples.
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How does an observational study differ from an experiment?
Odpoveď
It measures variables without assigning the exposure. It can find associations but usually supports weaker causal conclusions.
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Plants receive 0, 2, or 4 hours of added light, and growth is measured. What is the independent variable?
Odpoveď
Hours of added light. Plant growth is the dependent variable.
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A fertilizer study gives every plant the same water, soil, and temperature. What are these conditions?
Odpoveď
Controlled variables. Keeping them constant isolates the fertilizer's effect.
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A drug group improves more than a control group, but the groups were not randomly assigned. What is the main caution?
Odpoveď
Preexisting group differences could explain some improvement. The result is suggestive, but the design weakens a causal claim.

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